Glycosides as Potential Medicinal Components for Ulcerative Colitis: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Epidemiology of UC
3. Pharmacological Treatment of UC
4. Synopsis of Glycosides
5. Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Glycosides in a Model of UC
5.1. Quercitrin 1
5.2. Baicalin 2
5.3. Hyperoside 3
5.4. Mangiferin 4
5.5. Linarin 5
5.6. Vitexin 6
5.7. Naringin 7
5.8. Punicalagin 8
5.9. Curculigoside 9
5.10. Salidroside 10
5.11. Polydatin 11
5.12. Paeoniflorin 12
5.13. Asperuloside 13
5.14. Pedunculoside 14
5.15. Glycyrrhizin 15
5.16. Astragaloside Ⅳ 16
5.17. Gentiopicroside 17
5.18. Ginsenoside Rg1 18
5.19. Liriodendrin 19
5.20. Convallatoxin 20
5.21. Aloin A 21
6. Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms of Glycosides in UC
6.1. Suppressing Inflammatory Responses
6.2. Reduction of Oxidative Stress
6.3. Anti-Apoptosis
6.4. Regulation of Impaired Intestinal Epithelial Barrier Function
6.5. Regulation of Immune Cells
6.6. Regulation of UC-Related Receptors
6.6.1. Inhibition of Toll-like Receptors (TLRs)
6.6.2. Up-Regulation of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor (PPARγ)
6.6.3. Inhibition of Nucleotide-Binding Oligomerization Domain (NOD)-Like Receptors (NLRs)
6.7. Regulating Signal Transduction
6.7.1. Inhibition of the NF-κB Pathway
6.7.2. Inhibition of the MAPK Pathway
6.7.3. Inhibition of the Nrf2/HO-1 Pathway
6.7.4. Inhibition of Other Related Pathways
7. Conclusions and Outlook
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Sample Availability
Abbreviations
IBD | Inflammatory bowel disease |
TNF-α | Tumor necrosis factor-alpha |
IL | Interleukin |
MAPK | Mitogen-activated protein kinase |
NF-κB | Nuclear factor kappa-B |
STAT | Signal transducer and activator of transcription |
Treg | Regulatory T cells |
IFN-γ | Interferon-γ |
ERK | Extracellular signal-regulated kinase |
JNK | C-Jun N-terminal kinase |
TLR4 | Toll-like receptor4 |
EGFL7 | Epidermal growth factor-like domain 7 |
MPO | Myeloperoxidase |
MDA | Malondialdehyde |
GSH-Px | Glutathione peroxidase |
GPX4 | Anti-oxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase 4 |
HO-1 | Heme oxygenase-1 |
NQO1 | Quinone oxidoreductase 1 |
Nrf2 | Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 |
ROS | Reactive oxygen species |
SOD | Superoxide dismutase |
COX-2 | Cyclooxygenase-2 |
INOs | Inducible nitric oxide synthase |
ERβ | Estrogen receptor-β |
ICAM-1 | Intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 |
PPARγ | Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ |
HMGB1 | High-mobility group box 1 |
DCs | Dendritic cells |
IFN-γ | Interferon γ |
NOX1 | Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase 1 |
Shh | Sonic hedgehog |
Ptch1 | Patched1 |
Smo | Smoothened |
Gli1 | Glioma-associated oncogene homolog 1 |
ERK | Extracellular signal-regulated kinase |
JNK | C-Jun N-terminal kinase |
LPS | Lipopolysaccharide |
MUC | Mucin |
Th | T-helper |
Tregs | Regulatory T cells |
c-Maf | c-Musculoaponeurotic fibrosarcoma |
AhR | Aryl hydrocarbon receptor |
EOMES | Recombinant eomesodermin |
FOXP3 | Forkhead box P3 |
CCR6 | Chemokine receptor 6 |
TGF-β1 | Transforming growth factor-β1 |
CAT | Catalase |
DLL3 | Delta-like protein 3 |
PI3K | Phosphoinositide 3-kinase |
AKT | Protein kinase B |
PTEN | Phosphatase and tensin homologue deleted on chromosome ten |
ROS | Reactive oxygen species |
RORγt | Retinoic acid-related orphan receptor gamma t |
ZO | Zonula occludens |
IEC | Intestinal epithelial cell |
ASC | Amino acid transporter 1 |
NLRP6 | Nod-like receptor pyrin domain-containing protein 6 |
MKRN1 | Makorin ring finger protein 1 |
OCLN | Occludin |
ATOH1 | Recombinant human atonal homolog 1 |
ICAM-1 | Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 |
IκBα | Inhibitory κB-α |
ALT | Alanine aminotransferase |
AST | Aspartate aminotransferase |
TC | Total cholesterol |
TG | Triglyceride |
ASC | Apoptosis-associated particulate protein |
SGOT | Serum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase |
SGPT | Serum glutamic pyruvic transaminase |
ALP | Alkaline phosphatase |
TJ | Tight junction |
Cyt-C | Cytochrome c |
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Types | Drugs | Subjects Treated | Side Effects | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aminosalicylates | Salazopyridine 5-Aminosalicylic acid Olsalazine Mesalazine | First-line drugs used to treat mild and moderate UC. | Long-term use can lead to drug resistance and may cause adverse effects such as damage to the blood, liver, kidney, and digestive tract and folic acid deficiency. | [22,23] |
Glucocorticoids | Prednisone Budesonide Beclomethasone Fluticasone propionate | For acute and severe UC and mild patients who are intolerant or refractory to aminosalicylates. | Causes metabolic disorders, osteoporosis, etc. Long-term use can lead to drug dependence and irreversible complications. | [24,25] |
Immunosuppressants | Azathioprine Methotrexate Tacrolimus | For the palliative treatment of hormone-dependent UC patients and severe cases that do not respond to steroids. | Hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic, may increase the risk of infection, and generally used clinically only as an adjunct. | [26,27] |
Microbiological agents | Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG | For improving the symptoms of mild to moderate UC relapses. | Risk of bacterial translocation and subsequent bacteremia. | [28,29] |
Biological agents | Infliximab for Injection Tofacitinib | For patients with acute severe UC; for patients with severe UC where immunosuppressive drugs are ineffective or active UC with severe extraintestinal manifestations. | It is very effective for severe patients, but its use is limited due to its high price and side effects such as leukopenia, neutropenia, and allergy | [30,31,32] |
No. | Glycosides | Classifications | CAS | Molecular Formulas |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Quercitrin | Flavonoids | 522-12-3 | C21H20O11 |
2 | Baicalin | Flavonoids | 21967-41-9 | C21H18O11 |
3 | Hyperoside | Flavonoids | 482-36-0 | C21H20O12 |
4 | Mangiferin | Flavonoids | 4773-96-0 | C19H18O11 |
5 | Linarin | Flavonoids | 480-36-4 | C28H32O14 |
6 | Vitexin | Flavonoids | 3681-93-4 | C21H20O10 |
7 | Naringin | Flavonoids | 10236-47-2 | C27H32O14 |
8 | Punicalagin | Phenolics | 65995-63-3 | C48H28O30 |
9 | Curculigoside | Phenolics | 85643-19-2 | C22H26O11 |
10 | Salidroside | Phenolics | 10338-51-9 | C14H20O7 |
11 | Polydatin | Phenolics | 65914-17-2 | C20H22O8 |
12 | Paeoniflorin | Terpenoids | 23180-57-6 | C23H28O11 |
13 | Asperuloside | Terpenoids | 14259-45-1 | C18H22O11 |
14 | Pedunculoside | Terpenoids | 42719-32-4 | C36H58O10 |
15 | Glycyrrhizin | Terpenoids | 1405-86-3 | C42H62O16 |
16 | Astragaloside Ⅳ | Terpenoids | 84687-43-4 | C41H68O14 |
17 | Gentiopicroside | Terpenoids | 20831-76-9 | C16H20O9 |
18 | Ginsenoside Rg1 | Terpenoids | 22427-39-0 | C42H72O14 |
19 | Liriodendrin | Lignans | 573-44-4 | C34H46O18 |
20 | Convallatoxin | Steroids | 508-75-8 | C29H42O10 |
21 | Aloin A | Anthraquinones | 1415-73-2 | C21H22O9 |
Glycosides | Animal | Model | Dose | Effects/Mechanisms of Action | References | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Behavioral Evaluation | Colon Length | Histopathological Evaluation | Biochemical/Molecular Parameters/mRNA | Related Molecular Mechanisms | |||||
Quercitrin 1 | Male Wistar–Albino rats | DDS- induced colitis | 1 and 5 mg/kg i.g. 10 days | ↓ Colon tissue damage | ↓ MPO and TNF-α | [59] | |||
Female Wistar rats | TNBS- induced colitis | 1 and 5 mg/kg p.o. once | ↓ Colon tissue damage | ↓ iNOS, COX-2, NOX1, TNF-α, and IL1β | [60] | ||||
Baicalin 2 | Female C57BL/6 (B6) mice/ RAW264.7 macrophages | DDS- induced colitis/LPS-induced inflammatory macrophage model | 100 mg/kg i.g. twice daily for 7 days | ↓ DAI | ↓ Histological score | ↓ TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-13 ↓ MyD88, NF-κB p65 ↓ TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9 ↑ IL-10 | ↓ TLR4/NF-κB-p65 pathway | [61] | |
Sprague–Dawley rats | TNBS- induced colitis | 100 mg/kg i.g. 14 days | ↓ p-PI3K/PI3K, p-AKT/AKT, TNF-α,IL-6, and IL-1β ↑ IL-10 and ZO-1 | ↓ PI3K/AKT pathway | [62] | ||||
Male Sprague–Dawley rats/ RAW264.7 macrophages | TNBS- induced colitis/LPS-induced inflammatory macrophage model | 30, 60 and 120 mg/kg i.g. 14 days | ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ MDA ↓ TGF-β1, Bax, and ROS ↓ Caspase-3, cleaved caspase-3, caspase-9, cleaved caspase-9, Fas, and FasL ↑ CAT, GSH-Px, and SOD ↑ Bcl-2 | ↓ Oxidant stress and apoptosis | [63] | |
Male C57BL/6J mice | DDS- induced colitis | 20, 50 and 100 mg/kg i.g. 7 days | ↓ DAI | ↓ Histological score | ↓ TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β ↓ caspase-1 and claudin-2 ↑ IL-10 ↑ ZO-1, NLRP6, MUC2, ASC, and IL-18 ↑ E-cadherin, claudin-4, and claudin-5 | ↑ NLRP6/IL-18 pathway | [64] | ||
SD rats | TNBS- induced colitis | 10 mL/kg i.g. twice daily for 7 days | ↓ Weight loss ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ MPO ↓ TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17, and IL-12 ↓ RORγt and Th17/Treg ↑ TGF-β, IL-10, and Foxp3 | [65] | ||
Hyperoside 3 | Male C57BL/6 mice | DDS- induced colitis | 80 and 120 mg/kg i.g. 14 days | ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ TNF-α, IL-6, COX-2, and NF-κB p65 ↓ MDA ↓ Caspase-3 and Bax ↑ IL-10 ↑ Bcl2 ↑ Nrf2, HO-1, and SOD | ↑ Nrf2 pathway | [66] |
Male C57BL/6 mice | DDS- induced colitis | 3, 10 and 30 mg/kg p.o. 7 days/3, 10, and 30 μM | ↓ Weight loss ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17, and IL-22 ↓ MKRN1, RORγt, and Th17/Treg ↑ ZO-1, claudin-5, and MUC2 ↑ Foxp3, IL-10, and TGF-β | [67] | ||
Mangiferin 4 | Male Wistar rats | TNBS- induced colitis | 10, 30, and 200 mg/kg i.g. 16 days | ↓ Weight loss | ↓ Structural distortion of crypts, desquamated areas or loss of epithelium, and goblet cell depletion | ↓ TNF-a, IL-17, MDA, and SOD | [68] | ||
Male C57BL/6 mice | TNBS- induced colitis | 10 and 20 mg/kg p.o. 3 days | ↓ Weight loss | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ MPO ↓ TNF-α, IL-17, NF-κB, iNOS, and COX-2 ↓ Th17, IL-17, RORγt, and STAT3 ↑ Treg ↑ Foxp3, IL-10, and STAT5 | [69] | |||
Female C57BL/6 mice/ RAW264.7 macrophages | DDS- induced colitis/LPS-induced inflammatory macrophage model | 50 mg/kg p.o. 13 days | ↓ Weight loss | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ MPO ↓ TNF-α, IκBα, p-IκBα, p-p65NF-κB, iNOS, ICAM-1, IL-1β, IL-6, p-ERK1/2, ERK1/2, p-JNK, JNK, p-p38MAPK, and p38MAPK | ↓ NF-κB and MAPK pathways | [70] | |
Linarin 5 | Male C57BL/6J mice | DDS- induced colitis | 25 and 50 mg/kg i.g. 14 days | ↓ Weight loss ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ MPO ↓ IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ, and IL-1β ↑ IL-10 ↑ ZO-1, Occludin, and Claudin-1 | [71] | |
Vitexin 6 | Male BALB/c mice | DDS- induced colitis | 20 and 80 mg/kg i.g. 7 days | ↓ Weight loss ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, p-p65/p65, pIκB/IκB, and p-STAT1/STAT1 ↑ IL-10 ↑ MUC2, ZO-1, and Occludin | [72] | |
Male BALB/C mice | DDS- induced colitis | 40 and 80 mg/kg p.o. 7 days | ↓ Histological scores of liver | ↓ TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β ↓ ALT, TC, AST, and TG ↓ TLR4, NF-κB p65, p-p65, IκBα, and p-IκBα | ↓ TLR4/NF-κB pathway | [73] | |||
Naringin 7 | Male C57BL/6 mice | DDS- induced colitis | 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg p.o. 7 days | ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 ↓ p-p65NF-κB, p-IκBα, p-p38MAPK, p-ERK, and p-JNK ↓ NLRP3, ASC, and Caspase-1 ↑ PPARγ and ZO-1 | [74] | |
Male Wistar rats | TNBS- induced colitis | 20, 40, and 80 mg/kg p.o. 14 days | ↓ Weight loss ↓ Rectal bleeding ↓ The ratio of colon weight/colon length ↓ Diarrhea score | ↓ Histological score | ↓ MDA and MPO ↓ TNF-a and IL-12 ↓ SGPT, SGOT, and ALP ↑ SOD, GSH-Px, and CAT | [75] | |||
Punicalagin 8 | Male SD rats | DNBS- induced colitis | 4 mg/kg p.o. 18 days | ↓ DAI | ↓ CMDI | ↓ MPO, MDA, and NO ↓ TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-18, and NF-κB | [76] | ||
Curculigoside 9 | Male C57BL/6J mice | DDS- induced colitis | 50 and 100 mg/kg p.o. 7 days | ↓ Weight loss ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ Iron overload ↓ ROS and MDA ↑ GSH, GPX4, and SOD | [77] | |
Salidroside 10 | Male C57BL/6 mice | DDS- induced colitis | 20 and 40 mg/kg i.g. 7 days | ↓ Weight loss ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Colon tissue damage | ↓ Bax, caspase-3, and cleaved-caspase-3 ↑ SOD, GSH-Px, and CAT ↑ Bcl-2 ↑ SIRT1, FoxO1, FoxO3a, and FoxO4 | ↑ SIRT1/FoxOs pathway | [78] |
Male C57BL/6 mice/ RAW264.7 macrophages | DDS- induced colitis/LPS-induced inflammatory macrophage model | 7.5, 10, and 15 mg/kg i.g. 7 days/10, 20, 40, and 80 μM | ↓ Weight loss ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Colonic mucosal erosion, crypt loss, and extensive lymphocyte infiltration | ↓ MPO ↓ IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ, and IL-17A ↓ NLRP3, caspase-1, TREM1, DAP12, and GSDMD p30 ↓ Th17 ↑ Treg | ↓ TREM1 signal cascade ↓ Th17/Treg imbalance | [79] | |
Polydatin 11 | Male C57BL/6 mice | DDS- induced colitis | 15, 30, and 45 mg/kg i.p. 7 days | ↓ Weight loss ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ MDA ↓ Caspase 3, cleaved caspase 3, and Bax ↑ SOD and GSH-Px ↑ Bcl-2 ↑ Shh, Ptc, Smo, and Gli1 | ↓ Oxidative stress and apoptosis ↑ Shh pathway | [47] |
Male Wistar rats | Acetic-acid- induced colitis | 45 mg/kg p.o. 10 days | ↓ DAI ↓ Adhesion score | ↓ Histological score | ↓ MPO, IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6 ↑ SOD and GSH-Px ↓ Caspase 3 | ↓ Oxidative stress and apoptosis partially | [80] | ||
C57BL/6 mice/ RAW264.7 macrophages | DDS- induced colitis/LPS-induced inflammatory macrophage model | p.o. 11 days /100, 200, 300, and 400 μM | ↓ Weight loss ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ TNF-α, IL-6, IL-4, iNOS, and COX-2 ↓ ERK1/2, JNK1/2, and p38 ↑ IL-10 ↑ Claudin-1, Occludin, ZO-1, MUC2, and MUC3A ↑ AKT, Nrf2, HO-1, and NQO-1 | ↓ Oxidative stress ↓ NF-κB and MAPK pathways ↑ AKT/NF-κB/NQO-2/HO-1pathway | [50] | |
Male C57BL/6J mice | DDS- induced colitis/ TNBS- induced colitis | 30 and 60 mg/kg i.g. 10 days/5 days | ↓ Weight loss ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ TNF-α and IL-17A ↓ Th17/ Treg cells ↑ Occludin | ↓ JAK/STAT pathway | [81] | |
Paeoniflorin 12 | Female C57BL/6 mice | DDS- induced colitis | 50 mg/kg p.o. 10 days | ↓ MPO, TNF-α, and IL-6 ↓ NF-κB, ERK1/2, JNK, and p38 MAPKs | ↓ MAPK/NF-κB pathway | [82] | |||
Female C57BL/6 mice | AOM/DSS-induced CAC model | 3 g/kg p.o. 28 days | ↓ TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-13, NF-κB, TLR4, and EGFL7 | ↓ TLR4/NF-κB pathway | [51] | ||||
Male Balb/c mice | TNBS-induced colitis | 15, 30, and 45 mg/kg p.o. 7 days | ↓ Weight loss | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Colonic damage of macroscopic scores | ↓ MPO, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, IL-1β, TNF-α, and IFN-γ ↓ Bax, cytochrome c, caspase 3, and caspase 9 ↓ p-JNK/JNK ↑ p-P38/P38, p-ERK/ERK, p-NF-κB/NF-κB, and p-IκBα/IκBα ↑ Bcl-2 | ↓ MAPK/NF-κB pathway ↓ Apoptosis | [83] | |
Male C57BL/6 mice | DDS- induced colitis | 20 mg/kg p.o. 7 days | ↓ Weight loss | ↓ Colonic shortening ↓ Increased spleen weight | ↓ Eosinophil infiltration | ↓ Eosinophil infiltration ↓ Inflammatory cytokines ↑ Treg, p-STAT3, and CCR3 ↑ Eotaxin | ↓ NF-κB pathway | [84] | |
Asperuloside 13 | Male KM mice / RAW264.7 macrophages | DDS- induced colitis/ LPS-induced inflammatory macrophage model | 0.125 0.5 mg/kg p.o. 38 days | ↓ Weight loss ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening and increased colon thickness | ↓ Inflammatory cell infiltration, epithelial cell destruction, mucosal thickening, and lower microscopic score | ↓ MPO and MDA ↓ TNF-α, IL-6, and NF-κB ↑ SOD and GSH-Px ↑ Nrf2, HO-1, and NQO-1 | ↓ Oxidative stress and NF-κB activation ↑ Nrf2/HO-1 pathway | [85] |
Pedunculoside 14 | Male C57BL/6 mice/ RAW264.7 macrophages | DDS- induced colitis/ LPS-induced inflammatory macrophage model | 5, 15, and 30 mg/kg p.o. 7 days | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Loss of goblet cells and crypts, increased inflammatory tissue infiltration, and severe destruction of colon structure | ↓ MPO ↓ AKT, ERK1/2, JNK1/2, p65, and p38 ↓ IL-1β, IL-6, TNF- α, COX-2, iNOS, and NF-κB | ↓ MAPK and AKT/NF-κB pathways | [86] | |
Glycyrrhizin 15 | Female SD rats | Acetic-acid- induced colitis | 40 mg/kg i.p. 7 days | ↓ DAI | ↓ Morphologic injury and histological changes | ↓ MPO ↓ NF-κB, TNF-α, and ICAM-1 | [87] | ||
Albino Wistar rats | Acetic-acid- induced colitis | 100 mg/kg p.o. 8 days | ↓ Colonic tissue injury | ↓ MPO ↓ TNF-α ↑ SOD, GSH-Px, and CAT ↑ PPARγ | [88] | ||||
Male BABL/c mice | TNBS- induced colitis | 50 mg/kg i.p. once every 2 days for 5 days | ↓ Weight loss ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ HMGB1, IFN-γ, IL-6, and TNF-α ↓ Th17, Th1, CDs | [89] | ||
Astragaloside Ⅳ 16 | Male C57BL/6 mice | DDS- induced colitis | 50 and 100 mg/kg i.g. 7 days | ↓ Weight loss ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening ↓ Colon weight | ↓ Histological score | ↓ AHR, c-Maf, RORa, and RORrt ↓ CCR6 ↓ IL-17A, IL-21 ↓ Eomes, Foxp3, and STAT5 ↓ MDA ↓ DLL3, Jagged1, Jagged2, Notch2, Notch3, Hes1, and Hes2 ↑ IL-10 and TGF-β1 ↑ CAT, SOD, and GSH-Px | ↓ Oxidative stress ↓ Th17/Treg ↓ Notch pathway | [90] |
Gentiopicroside 17 | Male ICR mice | DDS- induced colitis | 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg i.g. 7 days | ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ MPO ↓ TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS, and COX-2 | [91] | |
Ginsenoside Rg1 18 | Male C57BL/6 mice | DDS- induced colitis | 200 mg/kg p.o. 10 days | ↓ Weight loss | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ IL-2 and TNF-α | [92] | |
Liriodendrin 19 | Male BALB/c mice/ RAW264.7 macrophages | DDS- induced colitis/LPS-induced inflammatory macrophage model | 100 mg/kg i.g. 10 days | ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological damage | ↓ MPO and MDA ↓ TNF-α IL-1β and IL-6 ↑ SOD and GSH-Px ↑ ERβ | ↓ Akt and NF-κB pathways | [93] |
Convallatoxin 20 | Female C57BL/6 mice/ RAW264.7 macrophages | DDS- induced colitis/LPS-induced inflammatory macrophage model | 50 and 150 μg/kg | ↓ Weight loss ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 ↓ NF-κB-p65 and IκBα ↓ COX-2 and iNOS ↑ PPARγ | [94] | ||
Aloin A 21 | Male C57BL/6J mice/ RAW264.7 macrophages | DDS- induced colitis/LPS-induced inflammatory macrophage model | 25 and 50mg/kg i.g. 7days | ↓ Weight loss ↓ DAI | ↓ Colonic shortening | ↓ Histological score | ↓ MPO ↓ IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6 ↓ Cleaved caspase-3 ↓ Notch1 and Hes1 ↑ IL-10 ↑ Ki-67 ↑ MUC2, ATOH1, ZO-1, and Occludin | ↓ Notch pathway | [95] |
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Niu, Y.; Zhang, J.; Shi, D.; Zang, W.; Niu, J. Glycosides as Potential Medicinal Components for Ulcerative Colitis: A Review. Molecules 2023, 28, 5210. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28135210
Niu Y, Zhang J, Shi D, Zang W, Niu J. Glycosides as Potential Medicinal Components for Ulcerative Colitis: A Review. Molecules. 2023; 28(13):5210. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28135210
Chicago/Turabian StyleNiu, Yating, Jun Zhang, Dianhua Shi, Weibiao Zang, and Jianguo Niu. 2023. "Glycosides as Potential Medicinal Components for Ulcerative Colitis: A Review" Molecules 28, no. 13: 5210. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28135210