Effects of the Usage of l-Cysteine (l-Cys) on Human Health
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. Results
3.1. Compilation of Bibliographic Sources of Interest
3.2. Bibliometric and Bibliographic Analysis
3.3. Review of Clinical Trials on Effects of l-Cysteine on Human Health
4. Discussion
- -
- Antioxidant role. l-Cys acts as a precursor for the synthesis of glutathione, which is an important antioxidant. The reduced form of glutathione plays a fundamental role in the defense of the organism against damage caused by oxidative stress [76]. This property is due to its ability to neutralize reactive particles that can cause damage to cells and tissues. Thus, diet supplementation with l-Cys restores the synthesis of glutathione in cases in which it has been compromised, thus improving the redox balance and promoting the reduction of oxidative stress. In addition, the elimination of free radicals may also be associated with certain benefits, such as in the case of reduced healing time following certain surgical procedures (photorefractive keratectomy, for instance) [22]. Besides, the antioxidant role of l-Cys is also related to reduced risk of a cerebrovascular accident [23] and reduced noise-induced hearing loss [66].
- -
- Mucolytic function. NAC causes a decrease in the viscosity of mucus secretion, thus facilitating their elimination. Bronchial secretions contain high concentrations of mucoproteins. The decrease in viscosity promoted by NAC is mainly due to the breakage of the disulfide bonds of the mucoproteins, resulting in a fragmentation of the chains from the mucins, immunoglobulins and serum albumin present in the mucous secretion [40].
- -
- Strengthening of hair. Blends fortified with l-Cys help to strengthen hair. Keratin is one of the most abundant proteins in the skin and the hair, and contains high amounts of l-Cys as building blocks. l-Cys forms disulfide bridges, which provide strength and rigidity to keratin. Consequently, the use of blends fortified with l-Cys promotes the repair of structural lesions and slows down hair loss experienced by patients affected by certain disorders (diffuse alopecia, for instance [24]).
- -
- Regulation of the activity of the immune system. It has been reported that l-Cys can regulate immune system activity by promoting changes in levels of production of its effector molecules, as is the case of IL-17. IL-17 is a cytokine produced mainly by some T-cells, called Th17 cells, which act on epithelial cells and fibroblasts, as well as on other cells of the immune system. It has also been demonstrated that the administration of NAC can significantly improve transplant-free survival in patients affected by acute liver failure not related to acetaminophen when administered during the early stages of hepatic encephalopathy. This effect is due to the regulation of IL-17 production, which is closely related to the progression of the encephalopathy [61].
- -
- Protection of the digestive system. Excessive alcohol consumption is considered a risk factor for the development of cancer in the upper gastrointestinal tract, because of exposure to acetaldehyde, which is carcinogenic to humans. In this sense, l-Cys intake reduces the concentration of acetaldehyde in saliva, thus decreasing the exposure of the gastrointestinal tract to this compound and, consequently, the risk of cancer [27].
- -
- Reducing the risk of stroke. Some studies suggest that consumption of certain amino acids, among which l-Cys, may be related to certain cardiovascular benefits, such as reduced arterial stiffness or reduced blood pressure, thereby fighting some risk factors related to vascular accidents in healthy women [55].
- (i)
- According to the results analyzed here, NAC is preferentially used instead of l-Cys. Besides, l-Cys is usually administrated as part of a formula containing other compounds, such as glycine, vitamin D, bFCF or theanine. So, the effects reported in these studies cannot be directly attributed solely to the l-Cys molecule.
- (ii)
- Most of the studies done at the time of writing this review are based on laboratory tests and cellular lines.
- (iii)
- The number of studies on the effects of l-Cys on human health based on clinical trials is limited and in many cases these are very preliminary studies in which the studied population does not reflect a standard population (considering aspects such as age, sex, etc.).
- (iv)
- Several important details related to l-Cys and NAC doses and metabolism remain unknown. Optimal l-Cys doses and safety concentration ranges according to some pathologies are far from known. In addition, optimization of the assimilation of l-Cys and its derivatives, when applied through nutritional supplements, is poorly described.
5. Materials and Methods
5.1. Search Strategy and Information Processing
5.2. Data Extraction and Selection of Relevant Studies
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
bFCF | Basic fibroblast growth factor |
IL-17 | Interleukin 17 |
l-Cys | l-cysteine |
NAC | N-acetyl-l-cysteine |
PAPS | 3′-phosphoadenosine-5′-phosphosulfate |
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Keywords | Total of Publications | Publications in the Last 5 Years (%)* |
---|---|---|
l-cysteine & pharmacology | 52,873 | 9976 (19%) |
l-cysteine & human health | 4742 | 1725 (36%) |
l-cysteine & nutrition | 1891 | 579 (31%) |
l-cysteine & nutritional therapy | 1074 | 265 (25%) |
l-cysteine & food processing | 305 | 127 (42%) |
Examples of l-Cysteine Usage | Effects | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Nutritional therapy in children with severe edematous malnutrition | Restoration of the rate of synthesis and the concentration of glutathione during the first phase of treatment | [21] |
Scarring of the cornea after a photoreactive keratectomy | Reduced average time of scarring | [22] |
Nutritional therapy in Ictus patients | Reduced risk of cardiovascular accident | [23] |
Hair care | Reduced hair loss and increased hair strengthening abilities | [16,24] |
Protection of digestive system | Reduction in the concentration of acetaldehyde by avoiding exposure in cases of achlorhydria | [25] |
Treatment chronic inflammation | Increased antioxidant status | [26] |
Prevention of upper digestive tract cancer and breast cancer | Decrease of acetaldehyde in saliva or it can be used as part of metabolic starvation therapy | [27,28] |
Indicator for the control of cardiovascular diseases | Pro-inflammatory signaling | [29] |
Treatment of erythropoietic porphyria | Photosensitivity improvement | [30] |
Treatment of type-2 diabetes | Control of glycaemia and vascular inflammation | [31,32,33] |
Composition of the Mixture | Examples of Usage | Effects | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
l-Cysteine + Glycine | Nutritional therapy in elderly HIV + patients | Improved oxidation of carbohydrates, insulin sensitivity and body composition | [34,35] |
Treatment of oxidative stress during aging | Increased synthesis of glutathione and decreases oxidative stress levels | ||
l-Cysteine + glycine + dithreonine | Treatment of hypostatic ulcer | Reduced pain and improved degree of ulcer healing | [36] |
l-Cysteine + vitamin D | Treatment of patients with type-2 diabetes | Increased levels of glutathione and decreased levels of triglycerides | [33] |
l-Cysteine + basic fibroblast growth factor (bFCF) | Treatment of corneal epithelium after photoreactive keratectomy in patients affected by myopia | Reduced time of resurfacing corneal. | [37] |
l-Cysteine + theanine | Improvement of well-trained athletes’ performance | Restoration of the attenuation of the activity of Natural Killer cells | [38] |
Examples of usage | Effects | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Treatment of methamphetamine-dependent patients | Methamphetamine dependence decreases | [43] |
Performance of athletes undergoing strenuous physical training | Redox equilibrium and adaptation processes improve | [44] |
Treatment of Thalassemia | Oxidative stress and DNA damage decrease | [45,46] |
Protection against the carcinogenic effect of tobacco | Modulation of biomarkers associated with cancer | [47] |
Treatment of bacterial meningitis | Antioxidant role | [48,49] |
Treatment against influenza virus | Proliferation of the virus is inhibited | [49,50] |
Mucolytic expectorant and treatment of respiratory tract infections | The viscosity decreases and facilitates the removal of mucus | [40,51] |
Specific antidote for acetaminophen overdose | Regeneration of glutathione levels | [49,52,53,54] |
Cardiovascular complications in patients with diabetes Treatment of type-2 diabetes | Attenuation of cardiovascular complications | [55,56,57] |
Prevention of cardiovascular diseases | Reduction of plasma concentrations and homocysteine levels | [58] |
Treatment of chronic hepatitis C | Increase in glutathione and improvement in response to treatment with interferon | [59,60] |
Treatment of patients with acute liver failure | Reduced IL-17 levels | [61,62,63,64] |
Treatment of nephropathic cystinosis | Reduced oxidative stress and improved renal function | [65] |
Treatment of noise-induced hearing loss | Protective effect. Hearing loss is reduced | [66] |
Treatment of cocaine addiction | It acts as an anti-relapse agent in abstinent subjects | [67,68] |
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Clemente Plaza, N.; Reig García-Galbis, M.; Martínez-Espinosa, R.M. Effects of the Usage of l-Cysteine (l-Cys) on Human Health. Molecules 2018, 23, 575. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23030575
Clemente Plaza N, Reig García-Galbis M, Martínez-Espinosa RM. Effects of the Usage of l-Cysteine (l-Cys) on Human Health. Molecules. 2018; 23(3):575. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23030575
Chicago/Turabian StyleClemente Plaza, Noelia, Manuel Reig García-Galbis, and Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa. 2018. "Effects of the Usage of l-Cysteine (l-Cys) on Human Health" Molecules 23, no. 3: 575. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23030575
APA StyleClemente Plaza, N., Reig García-Galbis, M., & Martínez-Espinosa, R. M. (2018). Effects of the Usage of l-Cysteine (l-Cys) on Human Health. Molecules, 23(3), 575. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23030575