Next Article in Journal
Evaluation of the Radiolabeled Boronic Acid-Based FAP Inhibitor MIP-1232 for Atherosclerotic Plaque Imaging
Next Article in Special Issue
The Encapsulation of Anthocyanins from Berry-Type Fruits. Trends in Foods
Previous Article in Journal
The Synthesis and Antitumor Activity of Twelve Galloyl Glucosides
Previous Article in Special Issue
Decreasing pH Results in a Reduction of Anthocyanin Coprecipitation during Cold Stabilization of Purple Grape Juice
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Molecules
Volume 20
Issue 2
10.3390/molecules20022061
molecules-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Distinctive Anthocyanin Accumulation Responses to Temperature and Natural UV Radiation of Two Field-Grown Vitis vinifera L. Cultivars

by
Ana Fernandes de Oliveira
1,*,
Luca Mercenaro
1,
Alessandra Del Caro
1,
Luca Pretti
2 and
Giovanni Nieddu
1
1
Department of Agriculture, University of Sassari, Viale Italia 39, Sassari 07100, Italy
2
Porto Conte Ricerche Srl, S.P. 55 Porto Conte/Capo Caccia, Tramariglio-Alghero (SS) 07041, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2015, 20(2), 2061-2080; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules20022061
Submission received: 9 September 2014 / Accepted: 20 January 2015 / Published: 27 January 2015
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Anthocyanins)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The responses of two red grape varieties, Bovale Grande (syn. Carignan) and Cannonau (syn. Grenache), to temperature and natural UV radiation were studied in a three-years field experiment conducted in Sardinia (Italy), under Mediterranean climate conditions. Vines were covered with plastic films with different transmittances to UV radiation and compared to uncovered controls. Light intensity and spectral composition at the fruit zone were monitored and berry skin temperature was recorded from veraison. Total skin anthocyanin content (TSA) and composition indicated positive but inconsistent effects of natural UV light. Elevated temperatures induced alterations to a greater extent, decreasing TSA and increasing the degree of derivatives acylation. In Cannonau total soluble solids increases were not followed by increasing TSA as in Bovale Grande, due to both lower phenolic potential and higher sensitivity to permanence of high temperatures. Multi linear regression analysis tested the effects of different ranges of temperature as source of variation on anthocyanin accumulation patterns. To estimate the thermal time for anthocyanin accumulation, the use of normal heat hours model had benefit from the addition of predictor variables that take into account the permanence of high (>35 °C) and low (<15 °C and <17 °C) temperatures during ripening.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

There has been increasing international recognition of the interactions and feedback between climate change and surface UV radiation [1,2], but the understanding of such interactions and of the induced ecosystem changes are limited since they act over medium-long time scales [3,4]. These environmental issues have led to a growing interest of the scientific community in studying plant acclimation to both light and thermal effects of solar radiation, under natural or modified climate conditions [5,6,7,8,9,10,11].
In viticulture, particular interest has recently been given to the effects of high temperature and UV radiation on secondary metabolite accumulation, namely of flavonoids (anthocyanins and pro-anthocyanidins), amino acids and aroma compound precursors, for their fundamental importance to berry color formation and stability, and to wine flavor and astringency [10,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19]. Together with genetics, plants nutritional and sanitary status, canopy architecture and density assume a major role on modeling plant adaptation to climate conditions [20,21,22,23,24]. The composition and concentration of anthocyanins and pro-anthocyanidins vary with the cultivar, cultural practices and microclimate conditions during berry development and ripening [11,13,25]. Though light interception at the cluster zone have a positive effect on berry skin anthocyanin accumulation [26], high sunlight exposure may cause a reduction on anthocyanin concentration, due to high temperatures exposure [24,27].
Several authors have demonstrated that a reduction on anthocyanin accumulation by high temperature (>30 °C) can result both from reduced synthesis and increased degradation of previously accumulated contents [12,14,28]. Furthermore, increased temperature after veraison may alter berry composition by reducing the anthocyanin: sugar ratio of ripe berries [29], probably due to a delay on anthocyanin accumulation, which shifts the onset of the linear phase in which anthocyanin and sugar increase in parallel [30]. Recent research works focusing on anthocyanin biosynthesis dependence on temperature and light [31] have demonstrated that light increases anthocyanin content in berry skin regardless of temperature and act synergistically with low temperatures (15 °C) on the expression of flavonoid biosynthetic-related genes.
As far as anthocyanin partitioning is concerned, light and temperature effects of solar radiation seem to influence differently anthocyanin accumulation and composition [31,32]. In Azuma et al. [31] experiment, low temperature and light affected anthocyanin composition of Pione (V. xLabruscana), increasing peonidin and malvidin derivatives while malvidin contents decreased in the absence of light and the two derivatives were reduced under high temperature conditions (>35 °C). High temperatures seem to alter anthocyanin composition also towards a higher acylation proportion of all derivatives [12,13,17]. On the other hand, berry sunlight interception seems to have a positive effect on dihydroxylated anthocyanin synthesis and a decreasing effect on trihydroxylated derivatives, as compared to complete shadow [33]. Inconsistent results have been observed regarding the effects of UV radiation on anthocyanin synthesis [12]. Nevertheless, recent works have observed a reduction of flavonols under UV-B filtering treatment [34,35] and an increase in berry skin anthocyanin content in response to UV-B radiation [36]. It seems that the accumulation of monosubstituted flavonols is increased upon UV-B light treatments [36,37]. Carbonell-Bejerano et al. [37] report enhanced petunidin acetylglucoside and delphinidin coumaroylglucoside levels in Tempranillo berry skin. Moreover, working with the same variety, Martinez-Lüscher et al. [36] have observed an increase in trisubtituted and methylated anthocyanins under UV-B light treatment and also increases the acetylation level, both with acetic and p-coumaric acids. In addition, distinctive varietal responses to light may be observed in flavonols and anthocyanin accumulation and composition in berry skin [32,33,38]. The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of natural UV light radiation and of the permanence of high and low temperatures on berry skin anthocyanin contents and composition of two grapevine varieties traditionally cultivated in western Sardinia (Italy), Bovale Grande (syn. Carignan) and Cannonau (syn. Grenache), with distinct phenolic potential [32,39,40]. Both varieties were subjected to reduced UV light (i.e. visible and visible + UV-A transmittance) under natural field-growing conditions. Along the three seasons of this experiment we analyzed ambient light intensity and spectral composition see [32], temperature and other variables derived from these, which are known to be basic weather variables affecting berry development and composition. We monitored berry skin temperature, from veraison until harvest, as well as berry skin total anthocyanin contents, and we used hierarchical linear regression to test the modeling effects of different ranges temperature as source of variation in anthocyanin accumulation patterns.

2. Results and Discussion

2.1. Experimental Season Thermal Conditions

In Table 1 the monthly average temperatures recorded in the study area during seasons 2009, 2010 and 2011, and the variation from the long term average, are reported. The first season was characterized by high UV intensities during the period from June to September [32,41] and by a much greater prevalence of high air temperatures (>30 °C), as compared both to the long term 30 year average and seasons 2010 and 2011 [32,41,42,43]. In 2009, the maximum temperature (Tmax) during berry growth and development reached a monthly average value of 27.5 °C in June which was about 3 °C higher than the 30 year average and the seasons 2010 and 2011. Again, in July Tmax averaged 31.1 °C, nearly +3 °C than 2011 and long term average but about +1.5 °C higher compared to 2010.
The months of August and September 2009 continued recording temperatures higher than the 30 year average for the same period, while the seasons 2010 and 2011 were much less hot and the maximum temperature values remained close to those of long term data, or even lower than the average values (−0.7 and −0.3 °C during ripening 2010). Also mean (Tmed) and minimum (Tmin) temperatures registered much higher values than the average in 2009 (about +2.4 and +1.2 °C for T med and +1.5 and 0.4 °C for Tmin during ripening months). Conversely in 2010, a lower Tmin was registered in August and September (−0.4 °C and −0.6 °C, respectively) and in 2011, Tmin in August remained 0.6 °C below the average value, while in September it was only slightly higher than the average (about +0.3 °C).
Table
Table 1. Monthly temperature conditions during the 2009‒11 growth seasons (from June to September) and long-term monthly 30-year average (1971 to 2000) in Capo Frasca, Italy [42,43]. Average values (x) and variation (Δ) between the study periods and the 30 year average.
Table 1. Monthly temperature conditions during the 2009‒11 growth seasons (from June to September) and long-term monthly 30-year average (1971 to 2000) in Capo Frasca, Italy [42,43]. Average values (x) and variation (Δ) between the study periods and the 30 year average.
VariablePeriodJuneJulyAugustSeptember
xΔxΔxΔxΔ
Tmax (°C)200927.53.031.13.330.31.526.90.9
201024.60.129.31.528.1−0.725.7−0.3
201124.90.427.6−0.229.70.926.80.8
30 year24.527.828.826.0
Tmed (°C)200924.53.627.53.527.32.423.51.2
201022.11.226.42.425.30.422.60.3
201122.21.324.40.425.70.823.71.4
30 year20.924.024.922.3
Tmin (°C)200919.92.622.52.422.61.519.10.4
201017.90.622.32.220.7−0.418.1−0.6
201118.20.920.50.420.5−0.619.00.3
30 year17.320.121.118.7
Notes: Tmax, average maximum temperature; Tmed, mean temperature; Tmin, average minimum temperature.

2.2. Light Microclimate into the Fruit Zone

Under the plastic films, photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) intensity was attenuated to about 18% of the external ambient values. At the fruit zone, PAR attenuation at solar noon ranged on average from 90% to 98% of the ambient PAR values in the inner canopy layers, up to a minimum of about 51% and 67% in the external canopy layers of the Control treatments (Table 2). In the UV-screening treatments, UV-A and UV-B radiation intercepted by the clusters was reduced to about 10% and 30% of that measured in Control berries directly exposed to natural sunlight and no significant differences between canopy sides were observed at solar noon (Table 2).
Table
Table 2. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) attenuation, UV-A and UV-B radiation intensity in East and West canopy sides, measured at solar noon in a clear sky day of veraison 2010, in Bovale Grande and Cannonau fruit zone. Mean values (n = 12) ± SE.
Table 2. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) attenuation, UV-A and UV-B radiation intensity in East and West canopy sides, measured at solar noon in a clear sky day of veraison 2010, in Bovale Grande and Cannonau fruit zone. Mean values (n = 12) ± SE.
PAR Attenuation (% Reference PAR)UV-A (W·m−2)UV-B (mW·m−2)
Distance from the Canopy Centre (cm)0–1010–20EastWestEastWest
Bovale GrandeControl90 ± 7.451 ± 9.63.0 ± 0.702.7 ± 0.55143.7 ± 59.2150.0 ± 56.5
Vis + UV-A92 ± 2.184 ± 2.40.8 ± 0.040.4 ± 0.0413.1 ± 4.61.0 ± 0.1
Vis94 ± 3.581 ± 4.11.0 ± 0.100.3 ± 0.117.2 ± 2.33.0 ± 2.3
CannonauControl90 ± 6.067 ± 12.31.5 ± 0.521.9 ± 0.61130.0 ± 44.9102.3 ± 53.8
Vis + UV-A98 ± 0.788 ± 2.10.6 ± 0.180.8 ± 0.135.2 ± 2.112.2 ± 8.5
Vis96 ± 1.288 ± 2.40.6 ± 0.170.7 ± 0.111.7 ± 0.84.5 ± 1.8
The light regimes induced significant differences in cluster light microclimate. PAR and UV radiation intercepted at cluster zone were significantly attenuated under the screening films, especially at midday due to the smaller solar angle and the shading effect of the canopy above. In the Control clusters UV-A and UV-B transmittances were significantly higher than that measured under the screening films, particularly during mid-morning (at 11.00 h) and beginning of the afternoon (at 15.00 h) [32]. The UV-A intensity reached similar values at the fruit zone in Vis + UV-A and Vis treatments but the UV-B transmittance and the ratio UV-B/UV-A were statistically lower in Vis all through the day. An extended characterization of cluster light microclimate during this experiment can be found in [32]. UV filtering films did not alter significantly the permanence of elevated temperatures (>35 °C) on berry skin, except for 2010, when Control berries were exposed to high temperatures for a longer period as compared to Vis + UV-A.

2.3. Berry Skin Temperature

Figure 1 reports the permanence of defined ranges of berry skin temperature (Tb) during ripening. For each season, we calculated the 10th and 90th percentile of Tb in order to determine specific low and high temperatures (<15 °C, <17 °C and >35 °C) that, due to their frequency, could have affected berry skin metabolism.
Molecules 20 02061 g001 550
Figure 1. Berry skin exposure to defined ranges of temperature (<15 °C, <17 °C and >35 °C) in east and west canopy sides, during ripening in (A) Bovale Grande and (B) Cannonau.
Figure 1. Berry skin exposure to defined ranges of temperature (<15 °C, <17 °C and >35 °C) in east and west canopy sides, during ripening in (A) Bovale Grande and (B) Cannonau.
Molecules 20 02061 g001
Berries in the west side of the canopy were much more exposed to high temperatures than those in the east side. Furthermore, during ripening 2009, the prevalence of elevated temperatures (>35 °C) was significantly higher in all treatments and in both canopy sides as compared to the two following seasons. No variety effect was observed, and in Bovale Grande the permanence of such temperatures ranged from nearly 8% of the duration of ripening in East Vis and Vis + UV-A berries to 14% and 16% in Control and in West Vis and Vis + UV-A berries. In Cannonau, the results were similar, although the differences between east and west sides were higher in Control berries. In 2010, East Vis and Vis + UV-A berries were exposed to more than 35 °C for less than 1% of the entire ripening period in both varieties, while Control and West Vis + UV-A berry skin had more than 35 °C for about 6% of the time. In 2011, all treatments were subjected to more than 35 °C for a similar amount of time, the greatest difference being recorded in Cannonau between Vis and Control berries (from 5% to 10% of the time, respectively). The smallest prevalence of low temperatures (<15 °C) was observed in 2009, specially in Cannonau Vis berry skin (for about less than 2% of the duration of ripening). In that year, Control and Vis + UV-A berry skin reached less than 15 °C with higher frequency, lasting 5% and 7% of the time below this threshold in both varieties. In 2010, the percentage of time for which Control and Vis + UV-A berry skin remained with less than 15 °C was about 7% in Cannonau and 9% in Bovale Grande, and in 2011 it decreased to 4% and to 5% respectively.
Overall, the season 2011 showed the lowest permanence of Tb inferior to 17 °C and also the higher permanence of milder temperatures (ranging from 17 °C to 35 °C). This result is in accordance to the previously described air temperature conditions, since among the three seasons, the third was in fact the one in which air temperatures remained closer to the 30 year average.

2.4. Berry Skin Anthocyanins

The effect of light regime in berry skin anthocyanin content (TSA) at harvest was inconsistent and only statistically significant in Bovale Grande during the season 2010 and in Cannonau during 2009, when control berries were able to accumulate a significantly higher content of TSA as compared to the two UV-screening treatments (Table 3). No significant differences were observed between the two UV screening treatments but in the last two years of trial slightly higher mean values were observed in Cannonau Vis + UV-A. Also, Spayd et al. [12] obtained inconsistent results while Martínez-Lüscher et al. [36] have reported that, in Tempranillo berries, although higher concentrations of extractable anthocyanins had been observed, UV-B light did not alter total anthocyanin concentration. Azuma et al. [31] studies have demonstrated that high temperature (>35 °C) severely decrease TSA in berry skin and that low temperature (15 °C) and light induce anthocyanin accumulation in a synergetic manner. In our study both varieties were exposed to high temperatures for long time during 2009, with a small permanence of low temperatures (<17 °C). As compared to the previous year, in 2010, direct light exposure promoted higher anthocyanin accumulation in Control berries of Bovale Grande but not in Cannonau. In this variety, Vis + UV-A and Vis berries TSA concentration was probably enhanced due to the effect of lower permanence of high temperatures and higher permanence of low temperatures (Figure 1).
Cannonau showed significantly lower TSA contents as compared to Bovale Grande in all three seasons. Yet, for Cannonau Vis + UVA treatment, we observed an increase of about 80% in TSA both in 2010 and 2011 as compared to the hot 2009. The same pattern was observed for the Vis treatment: an increase in TSA of 230% in 2010 and 95% in 2011 for Vis. In Bovale Grande, the variation in TSA content between 2009 and the other two years of trial was more relevant in absolute value, but not in percent variations, since for both Vis + UVA and Vis treatments the variation ranged from +50% to +92%.
Table
Table 3. Effects of light regime on total skin anthocyanin content (mg malvidin kg−1 berry) in Bovale Grande and Cannonau berries at harvest. Mean values (n = 9) and one-way ANOVA. Small letters indicate significant difference of mean values between treatments and ns refers to non-significant differences between treatment.
Table 3. Effects of light regime on total skin anthocyanin content (mg malvidin kg−1 berry) in Bovale Grande and Cannonau berries at harvest. Mean values (n = 9) and one-way ANOVA. Small letters indicate significant difference of mean values between treatments and ns refers to non-significant differences between treatment.
Bovale GrandeCannonau
200920102011200920102011
TreatmentControl306.9585.8 a654.1119.5 a127.0102.1
Vis + UV-A298.8450.3 b638.480.9 a,b182.1143.2
Vis258.3496.5 b650.255.5 b146.4108.6
Sig.ns< 0.05ns<0.05nsns
Notes: Lower case letters in the same column indicate significant difference and ns refers to non-significant difference of mean values between treatment (p < 0.05) for each variety.
Though having important agronomic and oenological aptitudes [40,44], many accessions of Cannonau have shown low phenolic potential, namely regarding TSA. However, in sunny and warm climate conditions, using deficit irrigation strategies, this behavior can be partially compensated by an accumulation of higher proportion of more color stable forms of anthocyanins [45,46].
In our work, light regimes have influenced berry skin anthocyanin composition differently in the varieties and among seasons. In Figure 2 the proportion anthocyanin derivatives berry skin in Bovale Grande at harvest 2009, 2010 and 2011 are presented. In the hot season 2009, a higher proportion of cyanidin and peonidin glucosides was observed in Control and Vis + UV-A berries during ripening and at harvest, which is in accordance with previous studies suggesting a positive effect of light on dihydroxylated anthocyanins [33]. However, in the following years the treatments did not differ significantly in Bovale Grande and in Cannonau, the proportion of these derivatives was only significantly different between light treatments in 2010. Besides, the exposure to natural UV light intensities did not induce differences in trisubtituted anthocyanins in Bovale Grande and a decrease in these forms was observed on Cannonau Control berries during 2009. In 2009, Bovale Grande Control and Vis + UV-A berries presented higher proportion of acetylglucoside forms (Figure 3), probably due to both the combined effect of UV light and higher permanence of elevated temperatures [12,13,17,34,36]. In 2010 and 2011, the differences between treatments were not so evident. Yet, Cannonau Control berries presented higher acylation degree with coumaric acid, and higher contents of all anthocyanin derivatives at harvest, except for malvidin glucosides (Figure 3), which can be ascribed to a combined effect of the light treatment and a higher permanence of low temperatures in those years [31].
Molecules 20 02061 g002 550
Figure 2. Proportion of TSA in delphinidin, cyanidin, petunidin, peonidin and malvidin based anthocyanins in Bovale Grande (A) and Cannonau (B) berries at harvest 2009, 2010 and 2011. Mean values (n = 9) and one-way ANOVA. Lower case letters (a and b) above the bars indicate significant difference and ns refers to non-significant difference of mean values between treatment (p < 0.05).
Figure 2. Proportion of TSA in delphinidin, cyanidin, petunidin, peonidin and malvidin based anthocyanins in Bovale Grande (A) and Cannonau (B) berries at harvest 2009, 2010 and 2011. Mean values (n = 9) and one-way ANOVA. Lower case letters (a and b) above the bars indicate significant difference and ns refers to non-significant difference of mean values between treatment (p < 0.05).
Molecules 20 02061 g002
Molecules 20 02061 g003 550
Figure 3. Proportion of TSA in 3-monoglucoside (3G), 3-acetyl-glucoside (3G-Ac) and 3-p-coumaroyl-glucoside (pC-3G) forms in Bovale Grande (A) and Cannonau (B) berries at harvest 2009, 2010 and 2011. Mean values (n = 9) and one-way ANOVA. Lower case letters (a and b) above the bars indicate significant difference and ns refers to non-significant difference of mean values between treatment (p < 0.05).
Figure 3. Proportion of TSA in 3-monoglucoside (3G), 3-acetyl-glucoside (3G-Ac) and 3-p-coumaroyl-glucoside (pC-3G) forms in Bovale Grande (A) and Cannonau (B) berries at harvest 2009, 2010 and 2011. Mean values (n = 9) and one-way ANOVA. Lower case letters (a and b) above the bars indicate significant difference and ns refers to non-significant difference of mean values between treatment (p < 0.05).
Molecules 20 02061 g003
Major differences were observed among seasons (Table 4). In the two cultivar, the elevated temperatures of 2009 lead to higher accumulation of delphinidin and petunidin, and less peonidin and malvidin derivatives (Figure 2) in accordance to the results obtained by other authors [12,13,17]. In addition, in 2009 a very significant increase in the proportion of acylated forms was evident right from the beginning of ripening, with much lower monoglucoside contents in both varieties and in every light treatment (Figure 3, Table 4). At harvest 2011, the variation in the proportion of anthocyanin derivatives showed a trend similar to that observed in 2009, with significantly higher proportion of delphinidin and petunidin derivatives than in 2010 in Bovale Grande, especially in Control berries, and a much lower proportion of peonidin and malvidin in all treatments as compared to 2010.
These results are in accordance to those reported by Azuma et al. [31] who observed an increasing peonidin and malvidin derivatives under light and low temperatures. As far as the acylation degree is concerned, again, in 2011 berry skin anthocyanin profile showed an intermediate content as compared to the other two seasons, with significantly higher anthocyanin acylation than in 2010, probably due two higher permanence of elevated temperatures (Table 4). Light regimes affected anthocyanin partitioning in the two varieties, but the influence of natural UV light intensities on anthocyanin metabolism can be largely surpassed by that of high temperatures, both via anthocyanin degradation and increased acetylation. A detailed analysis on this issue can be found in [32].
Table
Table 4. Effect of light treatment on berry skin percent composition of monoglucoside and acylated anthocyanins in Bovale Grande and Cannonau at harvest 2009, 2010 and 2011. Mean values (n = 9) and one-way ANOVA.
Table 4. Effect of light treatment on berry skin percent composition of monoglucoside and acylated anthocyanins in Bovale Grande and Cannonau at harvest 2009, 2010 and 2011. Mean values (n = 9) and one-way ANOVA.
Bovale GrandeCannonau
ControlVis + UV-AVisControlVis + UV-AVis
Monoglucosides200956.0 b58.2 b52.5 b77.076.463.1 b
201078.0 a77.8 a75.5 a76.076.087.3 a
201163.4 b65.2 b60.2 ab73.378.480.2 a
Sig.<0.05<0.05<0.05nsns<0.05
Acetylglucosides200912.1 a10.2 a7.5 b10.1 a9.414.0 a
20106.8 b6.1 b6.5 b4.2 b4.23.4 b
201110.2 a9.4 a9.3 a6.1 c5.95.1 b
Sig.<0.05<0.05<0.05<0.05<0.05<0.05
Coumaroylglucosides200932.031.6 a40.0 a12.9 b14.222.9 a
201015.316.0 b18.1 b19.8 a19.89.3 c
201125.624.5 ab29.4 ab20.6 a15.714.8 b
Sig.<0.05<0.05<0.05<0.05ns0.05
Notes: Small letters in the same line indicate significant difference and ns refers to non-significant difference of mean values between treatment (p < 0.05) for each variety.

2.5. Thermal Efficiency for Berry Skin Anthocyanin Accumulation

Our results suggest that high and low temperatures were more effective than light treatment on influencing anthocyanin accumulation in Cannonau berry skin (Table 3, Figure 2 and Figure 3). Greater sensitivity to anthocyanin decrease driven by high temperature was observed in Cannonau [32]. Contrary to Bovale Grande and many other varieties [30], it is extremely difficult to observe the typical two-phase relationship between dynamic of anthocyanin accumulation and that of sugars (°Brix) in Cannonau. In our study, we plotted TSA with total soluble solid (TSS) data from the three years of experiment, and we obtained two completely different scatterplots for the two varieties (Figure 4). Bovale Grande showed a classic linear relationship between data [30], with a first lag phase where TSS increases and very small changes occur in TSA, followed by a nearly linear phase where both compounds increase in parallel. Conversely, Cannonau data does not fit any geometrical curve, but present a quite random dispersion of points, much evident under high temperature conditions. Besides for its genetically feeble phenolic potential, such behavior could partially be explained by a high sensitivity to the permanence of critical ranges of temperature [30,31]. In fact, as compared to warm and low altitude sites, in Mediterranean mountain terroirs, where weather conditions are characterized by higher daily temperature ranges, the pattern of berry skin anthocyanin accumulation is linearly correlated with TSS increments and considerably greater TSA contents have long been reported [46].
In order to better understand the effects of temperature on berry skin anthocyanin accumulation, we calculated the accumulated thermal time for anthocyanin synthesis, using the normal heat hours (NHH) model [47,48] and we determined the permanence (in hours) of low (<15 °C and <17 °C) and high (>35 °C) temperatures, based on berry skin temperature recorded during ripening. We then tested the relationships between TSA and the four predictor variables (NHH, HT > 35 °C, HT < 15 °C and HT < 17 °C) for each variety.
Molecules 20 02061 g004 550
Figure 4. Relationships between total soluble solids (TSS) and total berry skin anthocyanin (TSA) content in (A) Bovale Grande and (B) Cannonau datasets.
Figure 4. Relationships between total soluble solids (TSS) and total berry skin anthocyanin (TSA) content in (A) Bovale Grande and (B) Cannonau datasets.
Molecules 20 02061 g004
Table 5 and Table 6 show the main regression analysis estimates and the model performances of three models tested for Bovale Grande and Cannonau, respectively. The first model estimates TSA contents based on a single variable, the NHH, which was statistically highly significant and showed a very good fitting for Bovale Grande, with correlation (R) and determination (R2) coefficients of 0.861 and 0.741, respectively. Conversely, despite being a highly significant variable in the simple linear regression for Cannonau model 1 (variable p-value = 0.004), the NHH was poorly correlated with TSA, with an R of 0.511 and a R2 of only 0.235. In both varieties, the introduction of the second variable HT > 35 °C resulted in an improvement of the regression model, especially for Cannonau, with no collinearity problems between predictor and dependent variables, as indicated by the values of tolerance and variance inflation factor. Nevertheless, as far as Bovale Grande is concerned, the second model only resulted in a very slight increase of R and R2 as compared to model 1, and HT > 35 °C p-value was indicative of non-statistical significant contribution of this variable for the overall regression. For Cannonau, the inclusion of NHH and HT > 35 °C as predictor variables (model 2) improved considerably the modeling performances as compared to the simple linear model. Both variables were highly significant correlated to TSA and increased regression significance, R, R2 and Adjusted R2 (Adj.R2), respectively to: 0.0001, 0.649, 0.421 and 0.378. The third model is divided into two alternatives, using: (a) HT < 17 °C and (b) HT < 15 °C. The model including the three independent variables, NHH, HT > 35 °C and HT < 17 °C (model 3), was the one that explained the most of the variations in Bovale Grande TSA, about 75.9%, without showing collinearity problems. Also in Cannonau, this model accounted for a much higher proportion of total anthocyanin variation than the previous two, although total berry skin anthocyanin contents still remained quite weakly associated with the temperature driving variables (Adj.R2 = 0.419).
In the last model, after adding NHH, the β coefficient of the variable representing prevalence of low temperatures assumed negative sign in the correlation with TSA in Bovale Grande. On the contrary, in Cannonau the permanence of low temperatures (HT < 17 °C or HT < 15 °C) have demonstrated a positive role in TSA accumulation model 3 while HT > 35 °C assumed negative influence, meaning that holding constant the other predictors, a variation of +1 in HT > 35 °C results in a reduction of −0.209 in TSA.
Table
Table 5. General model estimates of Bovale Grande berry TSA (mg malvidin kg−1), linear regression analysis and model performance.
Table 5. General model estimates of Bovale Grande berry TSA (mg malvidin kg−1), linear regression analysis and model performance.
ModelPredictorsDescriptive StatisticsModel Performance
Ndf1df2Regression Sig.RR2Adj. R2Unstandardized CoefficientsVariables SignificanceCollinearity Statistics
βStd. ErrorTSig.ToleranceVIF
1Intercept301280.00010.8610.7410.73250.34829.2721.720.096
NHH0.5940.0668.8450.00011
2Intercept301270.00010.8650.7480.73044.9229.9881.4980.146
NHH0.5520.0816.790.0000.6711.489
HT > 35 °C0.410.4560.8990.3770.6711.489
3Intercept301260.000143.20629.7411.5240.140
NHH0.8080.1535.5380.0000.1875.359
HT > 35 °C0.1080.4780.2380.8140.6021.661
HT < 17 °C (a)0.8870.7840.759−1.0840.527−2.0590.0500.2444.106
HT < 15 °C (b)0.8730.7620.735−1.6611.334−1.2450.2240.2883.473
Notes: (a) Model 3 performance using the predictors NHH, HT > 35 °C and HT < 17 °C; (b) Model 3 performance using the predictors NHH, HT > 35 °C and HT < 15 °C.
Table
Table 6. General model estimates of Cannonau berry TSA (mg malvidin kg−1), linear regression analysis and model performance.
Table 6. General model estimates of Cannonau berry TSA (mg malvidin kg−1), linear regression analysis and model performance.
ModelPredictorsDescriptive StatisticsModel Performance
Ndf1df2Regression Sig.RR2Adj. R2Unstandardized CoefficientsVariables SignificanceCollinearity Statistics
βStd. ErrorTSig.ToleranceVIF
1Intercept301280.0040.5110.2610.23571.0137.7769.1330.000
NHH0.0550.0173.1450.00411
2Intercept301270.0010.6490.4210.37875.0667.16810.4730.000
NHH0.0830.0194.4120.0000.6981.432
HT > 35 °C−0.2710.099−2.7270.0110.6981.432
3Intercept301260.00176.5756.98310.9660.000
NHH0.0350.0331.0520.3020.2074.840
HT > 35 °C−0.2090.103−2.0360.0520.6111.637
HT < 17 °C (a)0.6920.4790.4190.2350.1381.7060.1000.2713.695
HT < 15 °C (b)0.6810.4630.4010.420.2921.440.1620.4342.306
Notes: (a) Model 3 performance using the predictors NHH, HT > 35 °C and HT < 17 °C; (b) Model 3 performance using the predictors NHH, HT > 35 °C and HT < 15 °C.
For both varieties, the introduction of HT < 15 °C instead of HT < 17 °C produced a smaller improvement on the regression models 1 and 2, reducing correlation and determination coefficients as compared to model 3(a) and adding no statistical significance to the prediction. In Figure 5, the relationships between the total berry skin anthocyanin and the NHH and the linear regression model 3(a), for Bovale Grande (A) and Cannonau (B) datasets, are represented. In both varieties, the addition of prevalence of high (T > 35 °C) and low (T < 17 °C) temperatures during ripening as predictors of TSA increased the model efficiency goodness in the linear regression, almost doubling the R2 for the Cannonau dataset.
Molecules 20 02061 g005 550
Figure 5. Relationships between total berry skin anthocyanin (TSA) content and the Normal Heat Hours (NHH) and between TSA and the regression model 3 in (A) Bovale Grande and (B) Cannonau datasets.
Figure 5. Relationships between total berry skin anthocyanin (TSA) content and the Normal Heat Hours (NHH) and between TSA and the regression model 3 in (A) Bovale Grande and (B) Cannonau datasets.
Molecules 20 02061 g005
A regression considering only NHH and HT < 17 °C, excluding HT > 35 °C, would not improve much the model performance in Bovale Grande (R = 0.885; R2 = 0.783, Adj.R2 = 0.767) and in Cannonau (R = 0.629; R2 = 0.396, Adj.R2 = 0.351) as compared to the NHH model. Despite the influence of other factors on anthocyanin accumulation in berry skin, the permanence of high and low temperatures can help explain the TSA accumulation pattern in Cannonau berries under warm climate conditions. In fact, when modeling TSA based on NHH and the permanence of temperatures higher than 35 °C and lower than 17 °C (Table 6) we observed much better fitting and model performance for Cannonau data than using only the NHH. Additionally, our results showed that the NHH model alone already represents a good estimator of TSA for Bovale Grande, also under warm climate conditions (Table 5).

3. Experimental Section

3.1. Plant Material and Experimental Site

During 2009, 2010 and 2011 growing seasons, an experimental trial was conducted in the red grapevine clonal collection of the University of Sassari, in Oristano, Italy (39°54'N, 8°37'E). In this field, the three-year-old Bovale Grande and Cannonau vines, grafted on 779 rootstock and spaced 2.5 m × 1.0 m, had North-South row orientation and were trained to a vertical trellis, Guyot pruned and drip-irrigated. From fruit set until harvest, three randomized blocks, with the two grapevine varieties arranged in two adjacent rows, were set covering 16 contiguous plants of each variety per block with two plastic films (UVA diffused and UV-A AV diffused, 1.5 mm thickness, Ginegar, Plastic Products, Ginegar, Israel) of different sunlight transmittance: visible + UV-A (Vis + UV-A) and visible (Vis). In every block, the UV-screening treatments were compared to 8 vines directly exposed to natural sunlight (Control). Each plastic tunnel entirely covered vines canopy and were completely opened at north and south sides and left opened laterally at the trunk base level to allow for better air circulation inside the tunnel. Inside the tunnels average air temperature differed less than 1.2 °C from the external ambient. Light spectral properties of the plastic films were tested using both portable spectroradiometer (FieldSpec®3, range 350–1800 nm) and UV-A (315–400 nm) and UV-B (280–315 nm) single sensors coupled to a portable datalogger (Skye Instruments Ltd., Llandrindod Wells, UK) and a ceptometer (Sunscan SS1 and BF3, Delta T Devices Ltd., Cambridge, UK) for measuring PAR interception throughout the canopy and reference ambient PAR above the canopy, respectively.

3.2. Light Microclimate Conditions

PAR interception transversal profiles at the fruit zone were measured at solar midday using a portable ceptometer connected to a total and diffuse PAR and sunshine sensor (Sunscan SS1 and BF3, Delta T Devices Ltd.). The mean values of PAR attenuation into the canopy layers were express as percentage of ambient photon flux density outside the canopy (% reference PAR). For monitoring UV-A and UV-B intensity interception at the fruit zone the single sensors were placed close to the clusters, transversely to its vertical axis, facing the east and west sides of row. Both light microclimate measurements were taken at the same time, in 12 replicates per treatment, along the canopy wall, and under clear sky conditions.

3.3. Season Thermal Conditions

Table 1 shows the temperature conditions during the three experimental seasons, gathered from the closest weather station (Capo Frasca, 39°45'41''N, 8°28'01''E) [43,44]. Maximum, mean and minimum monthly average temperatures of the period from June to September 2009, 2010 and 2011, as well as the variation between the values recorded during these months and those of the 30-year long term average, are reported.

3.4. Berry Temperature Monitoring and Determinations

Berry skin temperature was monitored during ripening, in four replicates of east and west side clusters, using fine-wire copper-constantan thermocouples (GMR Strumenti, Florence, Italy) collected to four-channel dataloggers (Zeta-tec Co., Cambridge, UK) for data registration at a 10 min intervals. In order to quantify the thermal effect of solar radiation on anthocyanin accumulation, the prevalence of given ranges of temperature (15 °C, 17 °C, and 35 °C) along each ripening season was then calculated and the thermal time was computed using the normal heat hours (NHH) model [46,47], which have been proven to give a explanation of vine thermal requirements for anthocyanin synthesis and accumulation [47,49].

3.5. Berry Composition Analysis

For each treatment, cluster fractions were randomly collected in two-week sampling intervals, from veraison until harvest, and berry weight and composition (total soluble solids, pH, titratable acidity, total skin anthocyanin and phenols content) was analyzed following OIV methodologies [50]. Berry anthocyanin composition was determined in a sample of 50 berry skin extracts per replicate previously frozen using HPLC, and following Di Stefano and Cravero method [51] as described in Fernandes de Oliveira and Nieddu [39].

3.6. Statistical Analysis

Berry composition data analysis was carried out using one-way ANOVA and the least significant difference (LSD) test to compare means at p-value of 0.05, using SPSS 16.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Multiple linear regression was performed in order to examine the influence of accumulated NHH and of the permanence (in hours) of given temperature ranges (<15 °C, 17 °C and > 35 °C) on anthocyanin accumulation pattern in the two studied varieties over the three-year data set. For NHH calculation, 35 °C maximum, 10 °C minimum and 26 °C optimal temperatures for anthocyanin synthesis were considered [47], while the definition of the abovementioned temperature ranges took into consideration the observed 10th and 90th percentiles of berry skin temperatures along the duration of ripening in the three experimental seasons. The four independent variables tested for building the models (NHH, HT < 15 °C, HT < 17 °C and HT > 35 °C) generally have high correlation degrees and therefore were sequentially added using hierarchical regression analysis and multicollinearity diagnostic (using tolerance and variance inflation factor, VIF statistics). The variables were tested for normality, and t-test coefficients were used to determine single variables explanatory power as well as the combination of variables that accounted for higher proportion of observed variance in berry total skin anthocyanin (TSA).

4. Conclusions

This study has demonstrated that natural UV light intensities can have a positive influence on total anthocyanin contents and may favor berry metabolism toward the accumulation of higher proportion of dihydroxylated derivatives and the more color stable acylated forms. Natural UV light intensities did not induce differences in trisubtituted anthocyanins as reported by other studies [36,37] but a positive effect of UV was observed in cyanidin and peonidin derivatives in Bovale Grande Control and Vis + UV-A in 2009 and in Cannonau in 2010. Both UV light and high permanence of elevated temperatures induced increased acylation levels though the major effect of solar radiation was driven by high temperatures, which were able to alter the proportion of anthocyanin derivatives and the degree of acylation to a greater extent, promoting higher accumulation of acetyl- and coumaroylglucosides, namely of the delphinidin and petunidin derivatives.
The relationship between TSS and TSA was quite different in the two varieties, since for Cannonau the increases in TSS were not followed by increasing TSA as observed in Bovale Grande. Such behavior could partially be explained by a high sensitivity to the permanence of critical ranges of temperature. In fact, besides the higher between-years variation in TSA contents observed in Cannonau, also, the modeling exercise provided evidence for a greater sensitivity to high and low temperature of berry anthocyanin contents in Cannonau.
In this work, we proved that NHH is a very good estimator of TSA for Bovale Grande but not for Cannonau. A positive contribution of the permanence of elevated temperatures (T > 35 °C) to anthocyanin accumulation was highlighted by the regression analysis for both varieties, especially for Cannonau dataset. The permanence of low (T < 17 °C) improved slightly TSA estimation, mostly for Cannonau.
Overall, the Normal Heat Hours model can explain a great part of variation in anthocyanin patterns, but in warm climate conditions and for varieties highly sensitive to temperature like Cannonau, the prediction of total skin anthocyanin contents can benefit from the addiction of variables that take into account the permanence of high and low temperatures until berry maturation.
Increasing the knowledge on how berry total skin anthocyanin and composition respond to natural UV radiation and temperature in Mediterranean areas can help improve cultivation practices, namely those affecting canopy microclimate, in order to favor the production of higher quality grapes. Likewise, assessing varietal sensitivity to these abiotic factors and enhancing the accuracy of anthocyanin accumulation estimation models represent an important contribution to a better vineyard management, starting from the varietal choices up to the harvest decisions.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the Regione Autonoma della Sardegna (project Legge Regionale 7 agosto 2007 n.7. Studio dell’influenza dei fattori microclimatici (luce e temperatura) sull’accumulo e composizione dei polifenoli dell’uva. Sviluppo di un biosensore per la determinazione dei polifenoli e valutazione della loro capacità antiossidante in vitro e in vivo). The authors would also like to thank the financial contribution of the Convisar—Vino e Sardegna Consortium (project SQFVS APQ P6).

Author Contributions

A.F.O., A.D.C. and G.N. designed and performed research; A.F.O., L.M., A.D.C. and L.P. analyzed the data; A.F.O., and G.N. wrote the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Zepp, R.G.; Erickson, D.J., III; Paul, N.D.; Sulzberger, B. Interactive effects of solar UV radiation and climate change on biogeochemical cycling. In The Environmental Effects Assessment Panel Report; United Nations Environment Programme: Nairobi, Kenya, 2006; pp. 135–162. [Google Scholar]
  2. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Environmental Effects of Ozone Deplection: 2010 Assessment; UNEP: Nairobi, Kenya, 2010; p. 328. [Google Scholar]
  3. Zepp, R.G.; Erickson, D.J., III; Paul, N.D.; Sulzberger, B. Interactive effects of solar UV radiation and climate change on biogeochemical cycling. Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. 2007, 6, 286–300. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Caldwell, M.M.; Bornman, J.F.; Ballaré, C.L.; Flint, S.D.; Kulandaivelu, G. Terrestrial ecosystems, increased solar ultraviolet radiation and interactions with other climatic change factors. Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. 2007, 3, 252–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Sullivan, J.H.; Teramura, A.H. Field study of the interaction between solar ultraviolet-B radiation and drought on photosynthesis and growth in soybean. Plat Physiol. 1990, 2, 141–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Steel, C.C.; Keller, M. Influence of UV-B irradiation on the carotenoid content of Vitis vinifera tissues. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 2000, 28, 883–885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Kolb, C.A.; Käser, M.A.; Kopecký, J.; Zotz, G.; Riederer, M.; Pfündel, E.E. Effects of natural intensities of visible and ultraviolet radiation on epidermal ultraviolet screening and photosynthesis in grape leaves. Plant Physiol. 2001, 127, 863–875. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Julkunen-Tiitto, R.; Häggman, H.; Aphalo, P.J.; Lavola, A.; Tegelberg, R.; Veteli, T. Growth and defense in deciduous trees and shrubs under UV-B. Environ. Pollut. 2005, 137, 404–414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Ruhland, C.T.; Fogal, M.J.; Buyarski, C.R.; Krna, M.A. Solae ultraviolet-B radiation increases phenolic contents and ferric reducting antioxidant power in Avena sativa. Molecules 2007, 12, 1220–1232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Doupis, G.; Chartzoulakis, K.; Beis, A.; Patakas, A. Allometric and biochemical responses of grapevines subjected to drought and enhanced ultraviolet-B radiation. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 2011, 17, 36–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Gregan, S.M.; Wargent, J.J.; Liu, L.; Shinkle, J.; Hofmann, R.; Winefield, C.; Trought, M.; Jordan, B. Effects of solar ultraviolet radiation and canopy manipulation on the biochemical composition of Sauvignon Blanc grapes. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 2012, 18, 227–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Spayd, S.E.; Tarara, J.M.; Mee, D.L.; Ferguson, J.C. Separation of sunlight and temperature effects on the composition of Vitis vinifera cv. Merlot berries. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 2002, 53, 171–182. [Google Scholar]
  13. Downey, M.O.; Dokoozlian, N.K.; Krstic, M.P. Cultural practice and environmental impacts on the flavonoid composition of grapes and wine: A review of recent research. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 2006, 57, 257–268. [Google Scholar]
  14. Mori, K.; Goto-Yamamoto, N.; Kitayama, M.; Hashizume, K. Loss of anthocyanins in red-wine grape under high temperature. J. Exp. Bot. 2007, 58, 1935–1945. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Berli, F.J.; Fanzone, M.; Piccoli, P.; Bottini, R. Solar UV-B and ABA are involved in phenol metabolism of Vitis vinifera L. increasing biosynthesis of berry skin polyphenols. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011, 59, 4874–4884. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Ristic, R.; Downey, M.O.; Iland, P.G.; Bindon, K.; Francis, I.L.; Herderich, M.; Robinson, S.P. Exclusion of sunlight from Shiraz grapes alters wine colour, tannin and sensory properties. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 2007, 13, 53–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Tarara, J.M.; Lee, J.; Spayd, S.E.; Scagel, C.F. Berry temperature and solar radiation alter acylation proportion, and concentration of anthocyanin in Merlot grapes. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 2008, 59, 235–247. [Google Scholar]
  18. Koyama, K.; Ikeda, H.; Poudel, P.R.; Goto-Yamamoto, N. Light quality affects flavonoid biosynthesis in young berries of Cabernet Sauvignon grape. Phytochemistry 2012, 78, 54–64. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  19. He, F.; Liang, N-N.; Mu, L.; Pan, Q-H.; Wang, J.; Reeves, M.J.; Duan, C-Q. Anthocyanins and their variation in red wines I. Monomeric anthocyanins and their color expression. Molecules 2012, 17, 1571–1601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Smart, R.E. Sunlight interception by vineyards. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 1973, 24, 141–147. [Google Scholar]
  21. Smart, R.E.; Robinson, M. Sunlight into wine. In A Handbook for Winegrape Canopy Management; Winetitles: Adelaide, Australia, 1991; p. 88. [Google Scholar]
  22. Poni, S.; Lakso, A.N.; Intrieri, C.; Rebucci, B.; Filippetti, I. Laser scanning estimation of relative light interception by canopy components in different grapevine training systems. Vitis 1996, 35, 177–182. [Google Scholar]
  23. Kliewer, W.M.; Dokoozlian, N.K. Leaf area/crop weight ratios of grapevines: Influence on fruit composition and wine quality. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 2005, 56, 170–181. [Google Scholar]
  24. Mabrouk, H.; Sinoquet, H. Indices of light microclimate and canopy structure determined by 3-D digitising and image analysis and their relationship to grape quality. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 1998, 4, 2–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Cohen, S.D.; Tarara, J.M.; Gambetta, G.A.; Matthews, M.A.; Kennedy, J.A. Impact of diurnal temperature variation on grape berry development, proanthocyanidin accumulation, and the expression of flavonoid pathway genes. J. Exp. Bot. 2012, 63, 2655–2665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Downey, M.O.; Harvey, J.S.; Robinson, S.P. Analysis of tannins in seeds and skins of Shiraz grapes throughout berry development. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 2003, 9, 15–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. He., F.; Mu, L.; Yan, G-L.; Liang, N-N.; Pan, Q-H.; Wang, J.; Reeves, M.J.; Duan, G-Q. Biosynthesis of anthocyanins and their regulation in colored grapes. Molecules 2010, 15, 9057–9091. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Bergqvist, J.; Dokoozlian, N.; Ebisuda, N. Sunlight exposure and temperature effects on berry growth and composition of Cabernet Sauvignon and Grenache in the central San Joaquin Valley of California. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 2001, 52, 1–7. [Google Scholar]
  29. Yamane, T.; Jeong, S.T.; Goto-Yamamoto, N.; Koshita, Y.; Kobayashi, S. Effects of temperature on anthocyanin biosynthesis in grape berry skins. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 2006, 57, 54–59. [Google Scholar]
  30. Sadras, V.O.; Moran, M.A. Elevated temperature decouples anthocyanins and sugars in berries of Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 2012, 18, 115–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Azuma, A.; Yakushiji, H.; Koshita, Y.; Kobayashi, S. Flavonoid biosynthesis-related genes in grape skin are differentially regulated by temperature and light conditions. Planta 2012, 236, 1067–1080. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Fernandes de Oliveira, A.; Nieddu, G. Effects of natural ultraviolet radiation and high temperature on berry microclimate and anthocyanins in two red grape varieties Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 2014. submitted. [Google Scholar]
  33. Downey, M.O.; Harvey, J.S.; Robinson, S.P. The effect of bunch shading on berry development and flavonoid accumulation in Shiraz grapes. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 2004, 10, 55–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Berli, F.J.; Moreno, D.; Piccoli, P.; Hespanhol-Viana, L.; Silva, M.F.; Bressan-Smith, R.; Cavagnaro, J.B.; Bottini, R. Abscisic acid is involved in the response of grape (Vitis vinifera L.) cv. Malbec leaf tissues to ultraviolet-B radiation by enhancing ultraviolet-absorbing compounds, antioxidant enzymes and membrane sterols. Plant Cell Environ. 2010, 33, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  35. Martinez- Lüscher, J.; Sánchez-Díaz, M.; Serge Delrot, S.; Aguirreolea, J.; Pascual, I.; Gomès, E. Ultraviolet-B radiation and water deficit interact to alter flavonol and anthocyanin profiles in grapevine berries. Plant Cell Physiol. 2014, 55, 1925–1936. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Martinez-Lüscher, J.; Torres, N.; Hilbert, G.; Richard, T.; Sánchez-Díaz, M.; Delrot, S.; Aguirreolea, J.; Pascual, I.; Gomès, E. Ultraviolet-B radiation modifies the quantitative and qualitative profile of flavonoids and amino acids in grape berries through Transcriptomic Regulation. Phytochemistry 2014, 102, 106–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Carbonell-Bejerano, P.; Diago, M.-P.; Martínez-Abaigar, J.; Martínez-Zapater, J.; Tardáguila, J.; Núnez-Olivera, E. 2014 Solar ultraviolet radiation is necessary to enhance grapevine fruit ripening transcriptional and phenolic responses. Plant Biol. 2014, 14, 183. [Google Scholar]
  38. Matus, J.T.; Loyola, R.; Vega, A.; Peña-Neira, A.; Bordeu, E.; Arce-Johnson, P.; Alcalde, J.A. Post-veraison sunlight exposure induces MYB-mediated transcriptional regulation of anthocyanin and flavonol synthesis in berry skins of Vitis vinifera. J. Exp. Bot. 2009, 60, 853–867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Nieddu, G.; Chessa, I.; Cocco, G.F.; Nieddu, M.; Deidda, P. Caratterizzazione mediante marcatori RAPD dei vitigni tradizionali della Sardegna. Acta Italus Hortus 2006, 13, 275–280. [Google Scholar]
  40. Vacca, V.; del Caro, A.; Milella, G.G.; Nieddu, G. Preliminary characterisation of Sardinian red grape cultivars (Vitis vinifera L.) according to their phenolic potential. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 2009, 30, 93–100. [Google Scholar]
  41. TEMIS—Tropospheric Emission Monitoring Internet Service. UV station data based on satellite data (SCIAMACHY, GOME-2). Available online: http://www.temis.nl/uvradiation/SCIA/stations_uv.html (accessed on 4 August 2014).
  42. Aeronautica Militare. Atlante Climatico D’Italia 1971–2000; Centro Nazionale di Meteorologia e Climatologia Aeronautica: Rome, Italy, 2009; Volume III. Available online: http://clima.meteoam.it/AtlanteClim2/pdf/Atlas71-00%20-%20Vol%203.pdf (accessed on 16 August 2014).
  43. Tutiempo Network, S.L. Tutiempo. Net. Available online: http://www.tutiempo.net/clima/Capo_Frasca/165390.htm (accessed on 16 August 2014).
  44. Fernandes de Oliveira, A.; Mameli, M.G.; de Pau, L.; Satta, D.; Nieddu, G. Deficit irrigation strategies in Vitis vinifera L. cv. Cannonau under Mediterranean climate. Part I—Physiological responses, growth-yield balance and berry composition. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 2013, 34, 170–183. [Google Scholar]
  45. Fernandes de Oliveira, A.; Nieddu, G. Deficit irrigation strategies in Vitis vinifera L. cv. Cannonau under Mediterranean climate. Part II—Cluster microclimate and anthocyanin accumulation patterns. S. Afr. J. Enol. Vitic. 2013, 34, 184–195. [Google Scholar]
  46. Deidda, P.; Nieddu, G.; Pellizzaro, G.; Pia, G. Dynamics of anthocyanins in “Cannonau” grapevine as related to the environmental conditions. Polyphenols 1995, 94, 207–208. [Google Scholar]
  47. Rustioni, L.; Rossoni, M.; Cola, G.; Mariani, L.; Failla, O. Microclima termico e luminoso e accumulo di antociani in “Nebbiolo”. Quad. Vitic. Enol. 2006, 28, 137–147. [Google Scholar]
  48. Cola, G.; Mariani, L.; Parisi, S.; Failla, O. Thermal time and grapevine phenology. Acta Italus Hortus 2012, 3, 31–34. [Google Scholar]
  49. Murada, G.; Zecca, O.; Cola, G.; Mariani, L.; Failla, O. Maturità fenolica del “Nebbiolo” in Valtellina: effetto dell’annata e del sito. Quad. Vitic. Enol. 2006, 28, 125–136. [Google Scholar]
  50. OIV recueil des méthodes internationales d’analyse des vins et des moûts; Office International de la vigne et du vin: Paris, France, 1990; p. 368.
  51. Di Stefano, R.; Cravero, M.C. The grape phenolic determination. Riv. Vit. Ital. 1991, 49, 37–45. [Google Scholar]
  • Sample Availability: Samples are not available from the authors.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Fernandes de Oliveira, A.; Mercenaro, L.; Del Caro, A.; Pretti, L.; Nieddu, G. Distinctive Anthocyanin Accumulation Responses to Temperature and Natural UV Radiation of Two Field-Grown Vitis vinifera L. Cultivars. Molecules 2015, 20, 2061-2080. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules20022061

AMA Style

Fernandes de Oliveira A, Mercenaro L, Del Caro A, Pretti L, Nieddu G. Distinctive Anthocyanin Accumulation Responses to Temperature and Natural UV Radiation of Two Field-Grown Vitis vinifera L. Cultivars. Molecules. 2015; 20(2):2061-2080. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules20022061

Chicago/Turabian Style

Fernandes de Oliveira, Ana, Luca Mercenaro, Alessandra Del Caro, Luca Pretti, and Giovanni Nieddu. 2015. "Distinctive Anthocyanin Accumulation Responses to Temperature and Natural UV Radiation of Two Field-Grown Vitis vinifera L. Cultivars" Molecules 20, no. 2: 2061-2080. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules20022061

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop