Search Results (140)

Background/Objectives. Previous research with extremely and very preterm children indicates that these children obtain significantly lower results in executive functions (EFs) and in reading skills than full-term (FT) children. The comparison results do not seem to be so clear when other PT children in lower-risk conditions are studied. Many studies with typically developing and preterm (PT) children indicate that reading ability is determined, in part, by EFs. Therefore, the study of EFs and reading and their relationships in low-risk PT children is pertinent. Methods. In the present study, 111 PT children, classified into three groups with different ranges of gestational age (GA), and one group of 34 FT children participated in a longitudinal study, carried out from 4 to 9 years of age. The results obtained from the four groups in different EFs measured at 4, 5, and 8 years of age, and in reading skills at 9 years of age were compared. The possible effects of EFs on reading skills were studied through multiple linear regression analyses. Results. The results obtained indicate that no significant difference was found between FT children and any of the GA groups of PT children, either in EFs or reading skills. The effect of EFs on reading skills was low to moderate. Verbal and non-verbal working memory had a positive significant effect on decoding skills (letter names, same–different, and word reading), but not on reading comprehension processes. Higher-order EFs (cognitive flexibility and planning), as well as inhibitory control, showed positive effects on reading comprehension skills. The effects of the different EFs varied depending on the reading process. Conclusions. In conclusion, low-risk PT children do not differ from FT children in their competence in EFs or reading skills. There are long-lasting effects of EFs, measured several years before, on reading skills measured at 9 years of age. Full article

Background: Equine-assisted experiential learning (EAL) is an emerging approach that uses human–horse interactions to develop leadership skills through experiential methods. Purpose: This review synthesizes the literature on the role of EAL in developing leadership competencies and explores its implications for workplace learning. Design/methodology/approach: A narrative review was conducted examining empirical studies and theoretical frameworks on EAL and leadership development. Findings/Conclusions: Recent studies show EAL improves self-awareness, emotional intelligence, nonverbal communication, trust building, adaptability, and problem solving. These competencies are fostered through activities such as ground-based exercises, join-up techniques, and trust-building tasks, which require congruence between intention and action. Participants report behavioral changes such as improved empathy, clarity under pressure, and team cohesion. These align with core management skills for organizational performance. Implications: EAL complements traditional leadership training by developing relational and embodied leadership skills, including trust building, adaptability, and emotional intelligence, which contribute to organizational resilience and sustainable growth. Full article

This paper offers an overview of a large study of language and cognitive development in deaf and hard of hearing children. Specifically, we investigated how acquiring a signed or spoken language (language modality) and when a child’s access to language begins (i.e., at birth or later in development) influence cognitive development. We conducted in-person behavioral assessments with 404 children 3–10 years old (280 deaf and hard of hearing; 124 typically hearing). The tasks measured a range of abilities along a continuum of how strongly they depend on language input, such as general vocabulary and number words (strongly dependent) vs. skills such as tracking sets of two to three objects and standardized ‘nonverbal’ picture-similarity tasks (relatively independent of language). Overall, the timing of children’s access to language predicted more variability in their performance than language modality. These findings help refine our theories about how language influences development and suggest how a STEAM pedagogical approach may ameliorate the impacts of later access to language. These results underscore children’s need for language early in development. That is, deaf and hard of hearing children must receive fully accessible language input as early as possible through sign language, accompanied by hearing technology aimed at improving access to spoken language, if desired. Full article

Background/Objectives: Rett syndrome (RTT) is a rare neurodevelopmental disorder that affects movement and communication skills primarily in females. This study aimed to synthesize the research from the last two decades regarding the verbal and nonverbal communication abilities, assessment procedures, and intervention approaches for individuals with RTT. Methods: A structured literature search was conducted using the Embase, Scopus, and PubMed databases. Fifty-seven studies were selected and analyzed based on inclusion criteria. The data were categorized into four domains (verbal communication skills, nonverbal communication skills, assessment procedures, and intervention approaches). Results: The findings indicated a wide variety of communicative behaviors across the RTT population, including prelinguistic signals, regression in verbal output, and preserved nonverbal communicative intent. Moreover, the results highlighted the importance of tailored assessments (Inventory of Potential Communicative Acts, eye tracking tools, and Augmentative and Alternative Communication) to facilitate functional communication. The individualized intervention approaches were found to be the most effective in improving communicative participation. Conclusions: The current review provides an overview of the current evidence with an emphasis on the need for personalized and evidence-based clinical practices. Additionally, it provided guidance for professionals, clinicians, and researchers seeking to improve the quality of life for individuals with RTT. Full article

Background/Objectives: With aging linked to increased oral health conditions, the communication skills of dental professionals are vital to ensure patient satisfaction and improve the quality of geriatric dental care. This cross-sectional study evaluated geriatric patients’ satisfaction with communication at a university dental clinic, comparing interactions with dentists and fifth-year dental students. Methods: A self-report questionnaire was administered to 111 patients, assessing sociodemographic data, general health, and satisfaction across six communication dimensions: verbal and nonverbal communication, empathy, respect, problem-solving, and support materials. The data were analyzed using Mann–Whitney U tests (α = 0.05). Results: The geriatric patients exhibited higher levels of satisfaction when interacting with dentists compared to students, particularly in the domains of nonverbal communication (p = 0.007), empathy (p = 0.035), and respect (p = 0.017). However, no statistically significant differences (p > 0.05) were observed in terms of verbal communication, problem-solving, and support materials. Conclusions: The geriatric patients demonstrated greater satisfaction with interactions with practicing dentists. These findings indicate that an attending dentist’s clinical experience enhances interpersonal interactions with geriatric patients. Therefore, developing the interpersonal skills of future dentistry professionals, as well as adapting communication to the needs of the elderly, is essential to provide more satisfactory experiences in geriatric dental care. Full article

Historical cross-sectional approaches examining cognitive aging consistently reveal a pattern of steady decline on nonverbal problem-solving, speeded tasks, and maintenance on verbal tasks. However, as measures developed and broadened the factor structure to align with Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) theory, and age ranges were extended from 75 to 90 years, a more nuanced approach to cognitive aging emerged. The present study, using the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Fifth Edition (WAIS-5), examined the cognitive aging process through a cross-sectional approach. WAIS-5 normative sample data (aligned with the 2022 U.S. census) were obtained from the test publisher. The sample included adult participants aged 20–24 through 85–90 (n = 1660), which were mapped into 11 age groups. Using post-stratification weighting to control for educational attainment, cognitive decline was observed throughout aging; verbal skills were maintained longer than other abilities, while processing speed declined steadily and rapidly from young adulthood to old age. Working memory was vulnerable to the aging process but demonstrated slower patterns of decline than the other vulnerable abilities. Fluid reasoning and visual spatial skills (although aligning with separate CHC broad abilities theoretically) were strikingly similar in their pattern of decline across a person’s lifespan. Results are highly consistent with the large body of cross-sectional research conducted during the previous generation by Salthouse and his colleagues, as well as other teams of researchers. Full article

While small group learning through engineering design activities has been shown to enhance student achievement, motivation, and problem-solving skills, much of the existing research in this area focuses on undergraduate engineering education. Therefore, this study examines how small-group interactions influence design decisions within a sixth-grade engineering design-based English Language Arts unit for multilingual learners. Multilingual Learners make up 21% of the U.S. school-aged population and benefit from early STEM opportunities that shape future educational and career trajectories. Grounded in constructivist learning theories, the research explores collaborative learning in the engineering design process, using a comparative case study design. Specifically, this study explores student interactions and group dynamics in two small groups (Group A and Group B) engaged in a board game design challenge incorporating microelectronics. Video recordings serve as the primary data source, allowing for an in-depth analysis of verbal and nonverbal interactions. The study employed the Social Interdependence Theory to examine how group members collaborate, negotiate roles, and make design decisions. Themes such as positive interdependence, group accountability, promotive interaction, and individual responsibility are used to assess how cooperation influences final design choices. Three key themes emerged: Roles and Dynamics, Conflict, and Teacher Intervention. Group A and Group B exhibited distinct collaboration patterns, with Group A demonstrating stronger leadership dynamics that shaped decision-making, while Group B encountered challenges related to engagement and resource control. The results demonstrate the importance of small-group interactions in shaping design decisions and emphasize the role of group dynamics and teacher intervention in supporting multilingual learners’ engagement and success in integrated STEM curriculum. Full article

Training people interested in implementing Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) interventions to children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is important to promote skill gains. A recommended training package is called behavioral skills training (BST), which involves four components (didactic instruction, modeling, role-play, and performance feedback). Background/Objectives: The purpose was to assess the effects of BST on the accurate teaching of multiple skills via DTT by six psychology university students to a confederate and six children diagnosed with ASD. Generalization and maintenance assessments were conducted. Results: Through the research conditions, all university participants were able to teach ten different skills (sitting still, motor imitation, making requests, vocal imitation, receptive identification of non-verbal stimuli, making eye contact, following instructions, intraverbal, labeling, receptive identification of non-verbal stimuli by function, feature and class) with a high integrity level to the children. In addition, across four months after training, all participants maintained high teaching integrity levels while teaching skills to the children related to their individualized curriculum goals. Each child accumulated over 1000 correct responses across several sessions. The university participants rated their training with the highest possible score in a social validity assessment. Conclusions: BST successfully trained psychology university students to accurately teach multiple skills via DTT to children with ASD and involved long lasting effects. Limitations and new avenues for research were discussed. Full article

The present study aimed to enhance the understanding of the spelling processes used by young German-speaking learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). Specifically, we sought to (1) compare the children’s accuracy in spelling English real words versus pseudowords to elucidate the role of lexical and sublexical knowledge, and (2) determine which cognitive (phonological awareness, phonological short-term memory, working memory, nonverbal intelligence) and linguistic skills (English receptive grammar and vocabulary) underlie learners’ spelling abilities and misspellings (phonological and orthographic). We followed participants (N = 101) for two years, from the beginning of grade 3 to the end of grade 4. Cognitive skills and linguistic abilities were determined using standardized assessment procedures. Our results indicate that the learners in our study demonstrated greater accuracy in spelling English real words compared to pseudowords. English grammar knowledge significantly predicted real word and pseudoword spelling accuracy, as well as the number of phonological errors, which was the predominant error category. English vocabulary knowledge was a predictor for real word spelling, while nonverbal intelligence predicted pseudoword spelling accuracy. Phonological short-term memory positively predicted the number of orthographic errors (phonologically plausible misspellings but lacking orthographic conventions). Full article

Background/Objectives: Autism is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by restricted behaviors and impaired social and communication skills. The exact cause of autism remains unknown. One promising animal model for studying autism is the valproic acid rat model. Due to a 1 to 4 bias for males in autism occurrence, most animal model studies investigate only males and neglect females. However, female autism often appears different from that observed in males. Females are said to be less regularly diagnosed because they can “mask” their symptoms. Female autism is as necessary to investigate as male autism. Methods: Fertile adult female Sprague-Dawley rats were impregnated and injected with valproic acid on gestational day 13. Male and female offspring were subjected to behavioral tests to investigate autistic symptoms. Tests included novel object recognition, balance-beam, Y-maze, hole-board, three-chamber, marble burying, olfactory, light/dark and hot plate tests. Results: The tests revealed that VPA-exposed rats had increased anxiety-like behaviors, hyperactivity, and impaired non-verbal communication. However, they did not display repetitive behaviors or cognitive impairments. Notably, male and female rats showed different autism-like traits, with both showing hyperactivity, and males (but not females) additionally showing impaired sociability and increased anxiety. Conclusions: The findings suggest that prenatal exposure to VPA induces autism-like behaviors in both male and female Sprague-Dawley rat offspring. However, males appear more impacted by VPA exposure as evinced by their display of more autism-like symptoms relative to females. This study provides support for including both sexes in all studies modelling autism, as outcomes are seemingly impacted by the sex being observed. Full article

Background/Objectives: This study examined the development of speech, expressive vocabulary, and receptive vocabulary in boys with Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), with a focus on the contribution of the Fragile X Messenger Ribonucleoprotein (FMRP), while controlling for the effects of nonverbal IQ, maternal education, and Autism status on the development of these skills. Methods: Participants included 45 boys with full mutation FXS, ranging in age from 2.9 to 14.0 years, who were subdivided into those with FXS only (FXS-Only) and those with FXS and Autism (FXS-Autism). Speech, expressive vocabulary, and receptive vocabulary skills were assessed over three years for each participant. Results: There was a significant relationship between each of the outcome measures and the child’s nonverbal mental level, and between for both outcome measures of vocabulary and Autism status, but these relationships were moderated by the level of FMRP. Specifically, higher levels of FMRP seemed to increase the relationship between developmental level of speech, receptive, and expressive vocabulary for boys with FXS with and without Autism; however, at lower levels of FMRP, these relationships seemed to weaken significantly for both groups. Conclusions: These findings implicate increased complexity in the relationship between various contributors to the rates of growth of speech, expressive vocabulary, and receptive vocabulary in boys with FXS, with FMRP being a key variable potentially moderating the relationship between nonverbal abilities, Autism status, and speech and vocabulary development. Full article

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) commonly show difficulty in communication and daily functional skills. The use of scripts may help establish these repertoires. Scripts may be visual (e.g., pictures depicting actions), textual (e.g., printed or written sentences depicting actions), or auditory (e.g., recorded or dictated phrases depicting actions). Background/Objectives: The purpose was to assess the efficacy of script fading in establishing the vocal verbal emission of sentences under the control of pictures representing actions from four behavioral sequences (e.g., brushing teeth) in three children with ASD. The effects of the intervention on the emergence of related non-verbal repertoires were evaluated. During intervention, the scripts were textual for one participant, who initially read the sentences. For the remaining two participants, scripts were dictated to them so they could repeat them. Across sessions, scripts were faded out by gradually omitting the words from the sentences. Results: Script fading produced the emission of sentences solely in the presence of pictures (tacts according to a Skinnerian approach of language), replicating a previous study in which the same procedure also established the same type of repertoire. However, as an extension, in the current investigation, related non-verbal actions also emerged. Other previous studies into script fading were not specifically concerned with teaching tacts and probing the emergence of related non-verbal untaught repertoires. Conclusions: The data were interpreted as indicating correspondence between verbal and non-verbal behavior or “say-do” correspondence. The data were discussed in the sense that script fading, for some learners, may improve communication with sentences that impact the acquisition of related non-verbal behavioral chains. Limitations of the research were discussed. Full article

Despite progress in understanding the link between executive functions (EFs) (i.e., a set of skills involved in goal-directed activities crucial for regulating thoughts and actions) and word decoding skills, research has not yet determined the dynamics and extent of this link. This longitudinal study examined whether EF subcomponents (inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) significantly predict decoding skills in Portuguese, which has a semitransparent orthography. The sample included 81 children (M_age = 5.36 years, SD_age = 0.30; 40 girls) in their final year of kindergarten. EF performance was evaluated during kindergarten using nonverbal performance-based tests, and decoding skills were assessed one year later in first grade through a pseudoword reading task. A three-step regression analysis was used to explore the unique contributions of each EF subcomponent to decoding skills. Findings indicated that inhibitory control skills were significant predictors of first-grade decoding outcomes. However, adding working memory abilities to the regression model did not increase the explained variance. In the final step, including cognitive flexibility skills reduced the significance of inhibitory control and increased the amount of explained variance. These results suggest that, while inhibitory control plays an important role, cognitive flexibility has a more significant impact on word decoding skills, highlighting the importance of early development of specific EFs for decoding abilities. Full article

Background/Objectives: Developmental language disorders (DLD) are often associated with co-occurring neurodevelopmental difficulties, including attentional or social–emotional problems. Another nonverbal domain, i.e., visual cognition and its relationship to DLD, is virtually unexplored. However, learning visuospatial regularities—a scene-grammar—is crucial for navigating our daily environment. These regularities show certain similarities to the structure of language and there is preliminary evidence for a relationship between scene processing and language competence in preschoolers with and without DLD. This study compared implicit and explicit visuospatial knowledge of everyday indoor scenes in older children, aged 6 to 10 years, of both groups. Methods: We measured ‘dwell times’ on semantic and syntactic object—scene inconsistencies via eye-tracking and performance in an object-placement task, and their associations with children’s language, visual, and cognitive skills. Results: Visual attention towards object-scene inconsistencies was highly comparable between groups, but children with DLD scored lower in a visual perception test and higher language skills were associated with higher visuo-cognitive performance in both tasks. In the explicit scene-grammar measurement, this relationship only existed for children with DLD and disappeared when nonverbal cognitive performance was controlled. Conclusions: Our study suggests the existence of mild problems in visuospatial processing co-occurring with DLD, which is partly influenced by age and nonverbal cognitive ability. The acquisition of visual cognition and linguistic knowledge is an interactive, multimodal process where the perception of objects in scenes might affect how the words for these objects are learned and vice versa. A better understanding of this interplay could eventually have impact on the diagnosis and treatment of DLD. Full article

Background/Objectives: Malan syndrome (MALNS) is an ultra-rare genetic disorder caused by aberrations in the NFIX gene, located at chromosome 19p13.2. Key features of MALNS include general overgrowth, a typical facial gestalt, muscle–skeletal abnormalities, speech difficulties and intellectual disability. Additionally, MALNS frequently presents with autism-like behaviour and social challenges. However, characterisation of the cognitive profile of MALNS, including social perception skills, is limited. Methods: Six children and adolescents with MALNS, whose clinical and emotional–behavioural features had been described in previous studies, were assessed by means of a single, co-normed neuropsychological battery covering multiple cognitive domains. Results: Consistent with their intellectual disability, performance was generally weak across all neuropsychological subtests. Nonetheless, memory for faces, visual attention and contextual (non-verbal) theory of mind emerged as relative strengths of the profile, both at group and individual levels. Conversely, tasks requiring verbal reasoning and language comprehension, such as comprehension of instructions and verbal theory of mind, represented weaknesses for all participants. Conclusions: These findings provide a further characterisation of cognitive and social functioning in MALNS, which can inform future research as well as clinical practice and rehabilitation Full article