Search Results (81)

Background: This study investigates differences in muscle co-contraction and peak electromyography (EMG) activity between novice and advanced Taekwondo athletes during consecutive roundhouse (bandal chagui) kicks, examining the influence of body composition and experience level. Methods: Sixteen Taekwondo athletes (12 males, 4 females; mean age: 20.5 ± 4.3 years) were divided into novice (n = 8) and advanced (n = 8) groups. Muscle co-contraction indices and peak EMG activity across 15 consecutive kicks were assessed in key lower limb muscles, including the biceps femoris (BF), lateral gastrocnemius (LG), rectus femoris (RF), soleus (SO), semitendinosus (ST), tibialis anterior (TA), vastus lateralis (VL), and vastus medialis (VM). Results: Advanced athletes exhibited significantly higher co-contraction indices in BF–RF, VM–BF, and SO–TA pairs (p < 0.05) and increased peak EMG trends in the BF and LG (p < 0.05). Novice athletes showed significantly reduced peak EMG increases in the RF, VM, and VL. EMG trends were influenced by body composition, with principal component analysis indicating that higher fat mass and lower muscle mass were associated with greater variations in muscle activation. Conclusions: These findings suggest that advanced athletes refine motor control through increased co-contraction, improving stability and efficiency, while novices exhibit less optimized coordination patterns. This study provides insights into the neuromechanical adaptations associated with expertise development in Taekwondo. Full article

Introduction: Combat sport athletes are exposed to repetitive head impacts yet also develop distinct performance-related brain adaptations. Electroencephalography (EEG) provides millisecond-level insight into both processes; however, findings are dispersed across decades of heterogeneous studies. This mechanistic review consolidates and interprets EEG evidence to elucidate how participation in combat sports shapes brain function and to identify research gaps that impede clinical translation. Methods: A structured search was conducted in March 2025 across PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Cochrane Library, ResearchGate, Google Scholar, and related databases for English-language clinical studies published between January 1980 and March 2025. Eligible studies recorded raw resting or task-related EEG in athletes engaged in boxing, wrestling, judo, karate, taekwondo, kickboxing, or mixed martial arts. Titles, abstracts, and full texts were independently screened by two reviewers. Twenty-three studies, encompassing approximately 650 combat sport athletes and 430 controls, met the inclusion criteria and were included in the qualitative synthesis. Results: Early visual EEG and perfusion studies linked prolonged competitive exposure in professional boxers to focal hypoperfusion and low-frequency slowing. More recent quantitative studies refined these findings: across boxing, wrestling, and kickboxing cohorts, chronic participation was associated with reduced alpha and theta power, excess slow-wave activity, and disrupted small-world network topology—alterations that often preceded cognitive or structural impairments. In contrast, elite athletes in karate, fencing, and kickboxing consistently demonstrated neural efficiency patterns, including elevated resting alpha power, reduced task-related event-related desynchronization (ERD), and streamlined cortico-muscular coupling during cognitive and motor tasks. Acute bouts elicited transient increases in frontal–occipital delta and high beta power proportional to head impact count and cortisol elevation, while brief judo chokes triggered short-lived slow-wave bursts without lasting dysfunction. Methodological heterogeneity—including variations in channel count (1 to 64), reference schemes, and frequency band definitions—limited cross-study comparability. Conclusions: EEG effectively captures both the adverse effects of repetitive head trauma and the cortical adaptations associated with high-level combat sport training, underscoring its potential as a rapid, portable tool for brain monitoring. Standardizing acquisition protocols, integrating EEG into longitudinal multimodal studies, and establishing sex- and age-specific normative data are essential for translating these insights into practical applications in concussion management, performance monitoring, and regulatory policy. Full article

Background/Objectives: Mixed martial arts (MMA) is a combat sport which heavily involves upper limb strength, mobility, and stability. Shoulder injuries, given their impact on striking and grappling, may significantly hinder performance and career longevity. However, their specific effects on competitive outcomes remain poorly defined. This study evaluates return-to-sport rates, fight performance, and long-term success in professional MMA athletes following shoulder injuries. Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted using publicly available databases to identify professional MMA fighters from the UFC, Bellator, and Strikeforce who sustained shoulder injuries requiring withdrawal from scheduled bouts. Fighter demographics, injury characteristics, and treatment approaches were recorded. Performance metrics—including winning percentage, takedown (TD), knockdown (KD), and significant strike (SS) rates—were compared before and after injury. Independent t-tests were used, and significance was set at p < 0.05. Results: A total of 27 fighters with 34 documented shoulder injuries were included. The most common injury was a torn labrum (41.2%), with 76.5% requiring surgical intervention. Aggregate winning rates significantly declined from 81.96% pre-injury to 54.7% post-injury (p < 0.001). Aggregate KD rates also dropped significantly (p < 0.001), while TD rates trended downward without reaching statistical significance. SS rates remained stable, suggesting potential compensatory mechanisms. Injury recurrence was observed in 22.2% of cases. Conclusions: Shoulder injuries in MMA are associated with a substantial decline in competitive success, particularly in knockout capability, emphasizing the critical role of shoulder integrity in fight performance. The high recurrence rate suggests the need for optimized rehabilitation protocols and stricter return-to-sport guidelines to enhance fighter longevity. Full article

Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) is a highly dynamic combat sport that requires precise motor coordination and technical execution. Video-based motion analysis, including two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) motion capture systems, plays a critical role in optimizing movement patterns, enhancing training efficiency, and reducing injury risk. However, the comparative validity of 2D and 3D systems for evaluating punching mechanics under external stressors remains unclear. This study aimed to first validate the measurement agreement between 2D and 3D motion analyses during sagittal-plane punches, and second, to examine the impact of fatigue and balance disruption on arm kinematics and punch dynamics in elite MMA athletes. Twenty-one male MMA fighters (mean age: 24.85 ± 7.24 years) performed standardized straight right punches (SRPs) and swing punches (SPs) under three experimental conditions: normal, balance-disrupted, and fatigued. Participants were instructed to deliver maximal-effort punches targeting a designated striking pad placed at a consistent height and distance. Each punch type was executed three times per condition. Kinematic data were collected using the my Dartfish Express(version 7.2.0) app (2D system) and MaxPRO infrared motion capture system (3D system). Statistical analyses included Pearson’s correlation coefficients, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and linear mixed models (LMMs). Strong correlations (r = 0.964–0.999) and high intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) values (0.81–0.99) confirmed the high reliability of 2D analysis for sagittal-plane techniques. Fatigue significantly decreased punch velocity and impact force (p < 0.01), while increasing joint angle variability (p < 0.01). These findings highlight the complementary use of 2D and 3D motion capture methods, supporting individualized monitoring, adaptive technique evaluation, and performance optimization in combat sports. Full article

Background: Recreational participation in Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) has rapidly increased. Despite consistent evidence of a high injury prevalence in MMA athletes, the neuromuscular implications of regular MMA training remain underexplored. The cervical spine is particularly vulnerable to trauma due to repetitive impacts and high mechanical demands in combat sports. Methods: This case-control study compared cervical spine function and self-reported symptoms between 25 recreational MMA athletes and 25 matched individuals who engaged in general fitness training. Outcome measures included Neck Disability Index (NDI), Post-Concussion Symptom Scale (PCSS), pain and headache reports, cervical range of motion (ROM), proprioception, isometric strength, and endurance. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to identify the predictors of group classification. Results: The MMA group exhibited significantly higher values for post-concussion symptoms (p = 0.012), cervical flexor endurance (p = 0.031), and the number of concussions (p = 0.001) but lower flexion ROM (p = 0.031). No significant differences were observed in strength, proprioception, or NDI scores. Logistic regression identified the number of concussions, age, total cervical ROM, and average rotation strength as significant predictors of group membership (model AUC = 0.96; Nagelkerke R² = 0.797). Conclusions: Recreational MMA athletes demonstrated higher rates of concussion-related symptoms and reduced cervical flexion ROM than noncontact exercisers despite no statistically significant differences in strength and proprioception. These findings suggest that cumulative exposure to amateur MMA is associated with alterations in cervical neuromuscular characteristics. These results support the implementation of targeted mobility, endurance, and injury prevention programs in recreational MMA training. Full article

Youth violence is a pressing social issue. Many well-informed interventions to reduce youth violence fail due to low uptake. Combat sports—such as boxing, judo, and mixed martial arts—appear to encourage aggression, making them appealing to individuals prone to violent behavior. However, rather than reinforcing violence, these sports instill discipline, goal-directed behavior, and self-control. This paper argues that combat sports align with the values of at-risk youth, increasing their participation, while simultaneously teaching them emotional regulation and resilience. I propose that structured combat training provides a sustainable intervention by fostering self-awareness, cognitive control, and respect within a rule-governed environment. Furthermore, training combat instructors in emotion regulation strategies could enhance these benefits. By providing motivation, capability, and opportunity, combat sports present a viable pathway to reducing violent behavior among youth. Full article

Background: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) is a martial art in which practitioners require a variety of technical and biomotor skills for optimal performance. The International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation (IBJJF) awards points to athletes who win first, second, and third place in their competitions, but it is not known whether there are differences between ranked and unranked athletes. Therefore, the objective was to evaluate and compare the muscular strength and body composition of IBJJF-ranked and unranked athletes. Methods: Eight athletes ranked (RG = 3–1st, 24th, and 26th) or not (NRG = 5) by the IBJJF participated in this study and underwent lower and upper limb power and body composition tests. Results: despite percentage differences in favor of RG, there were no differences (p > 0.05) between the groups for the variables analyzed. Conclusions: there is no difference in muscular power and body composition between ranked and unranked athletes. This state of affairs suggests the complexity of athletic performance in Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) and thus highlights the need to consider other aspects in addition to those evaluated, such as technique, tactics, and psychological factors, which can play a crucial role in the performance of athletes. Full article

Given the high postural control demands of sport Jiu-Jitsu, prolonged training in this discipline may result in sport-specific adaptations, particularly in positions closely related to combat scenarios. This study aimed to evaluate the differences in reaction time and postural control between elite Jiu-Jitsu athletes and untrained individuals, highlighting the potential influence of specialized training on these critical performance attributes. This study was conducted on thirty-one young participants (fifteen Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu athletes and sixteen non-athletes). Reaction time was measured using the Fit Light Trainer system in two positions. Postural control was assessed during 30 s bipedal and single-leg standing, both with and without a dual task involving tracking a randomly moving point on a screen. Results indicated that athletes demonstrated significantly faster reaction times (p = 0.0242) and greater complexity in postural control mechanisms, as evidenced by higher fractal dimension values during single-leg standing with dual tasks in the anterior–posterior direction (p = 0.0011). These findings suggest that Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu athletes possess enhanced neuromuscular and cognitive–motor integration, crucial for managing the complex demands of martial arts. This study highlights the importance of incorporating dual-task scenarios in training to optimize athletic performance and postural control in high-demand sport contexts. Full article

Brazilian jiu-jitsu engagement has been found to positively impact psychological variables in children, adolescents, and adult athletes. Psychological variabilities have previously been shown among belt ranks in Brazilian jiu-jitsu athletes. Background/Objectives: This study aimed to explore the differences in mental strength, resilience, grit, self-efficacy, self-control, aggression, life satisfaction, and mental health disorders among the Brazilian jiu-jitsu belt ranks. Methods: A sample of 420 Brazilian jiu-jitsu athletes (78.8% male), including 121 white belts, 118 blue belts, 78 purple belts, 46 brown belts, and 57 black belts, between 18 and 60 years of age, completed the Mental Strength Scale, Brief Resilience Scale, Grit Scale, General Self-Efficacy Scale, Brief Self-Control Scale, Brief Aggression Questionnaire, Satisfaction with Life Scale, and Mental Health Disorders Screening Instrument for Athletes. Results: Results showed that Brazilian jiu-jitsu black belts presented significantly higher mental strength, resilience, self-efficacy, self-control, life satisfaction, and lower mental health disorders than white belts. No significant differences were found between white and black belts in aggression (total, physical aggression, anger, verbal aggression, and hostility). Brazilian jiu-jitsu training experience positively correlated (small effect) with mental strength, resilience, grit, self-efficacy, self-control, physical and verbal aggression, and life satisfaction. Conclusions: In conclusion, the results are suggestive that Brazilian jiu-jitsu black belts are generally more likely to present higher mental strength, resilience, grit, self-efficacy, self-control, life satisfaction, and better mental health than white belts, with no differences in aggression. More experienced Brazilian jiu-jitsu athletes were more likely to present higher mental strength, resilience, grit, self-efficacy, self-control, physical and verbal aggression, and life satisfaction than less experienced athletes. Future studies are encouraged to investigate whether the effects found in the current study would remain after controlling for the athlete’s age. Full article

Background/Objectives: To date, the health effects of karate have not been identified. Therefore, the aim of this article is to learn more about the health effects of karate training based on a review of current research. Methods: The Scopus database was searched from 2000 onwards for available articles related only to karate. The following intermediate phrases were not included: combat sport, fighting art, hand-to-hand combat, martial art, and self-defence system. The filter used was desk review analysis. Only 14 scientific articles (research papers and review papers) strictly on karate were found. The method of source material analysis and critical analysis of the source text was then used. Results: It was shown that kumite appears to require significantly more metabolic power than kata. Furthermore, the greater skill of karatekas is associated with their greater physical fitness, and long-term karate training attenuates the decline in dynamic visual acuity (DVA). The role of modified and individualised forms of karate training is also highlighted as important for the health of practitioners. Furthermore, long-term karate practice is associated with extensive modulation of immunological parameters. Karate training can also significantly improve motor skills. It can also play an important role in the development of willpower and personality traits that contribute to the well-being of its practitioners. Furthermore, nutritional and psychological interventions combined with karate training may improve cardiometabolic parameters, oxidative stress and inflammation. Karate training may also contribute to the prevention of osteoporosis and strengthen the left ventricular myocardium. Conclusions: It was found that there is a paucity of contemporary research on the health effects of karate training. In addition, they are limited to the individuals studied, so that generalisations about these effects in the general population of karate practitioners cannot be made. Full article

Background: Growing environmental challenges necessitate the implementation of sustainable practices across various sectors, including sports club management. The aim of this study was to investigate environmental management practices in martial arts clubs in Poznan, Poland, with a particular focus on energy and water conservation, waste management, and the promotion of sustainable mobility. Materials and Methods: A qualitative study was conducted with a group of fourteen martial arts clubs operating in Poznan. A semi-structured interview method was employed with club owners and managers, asking about their approaches to reducing energy and water consumption, waste sorting, waste reduction, and promoting sustainable transportation. Data analysis involved thematic analysis, where the practices adopted by individual clubs were compared and qualitatively assessed based on recurring themes. Results: The results indicate significant variability in approaches among the surveyed clubs. Only one club implements comprehensive solutions for energy and water conservation and four take moderate actions, while nine do not pay much attention to these issues. Similarly, only some clubs actively engage in waste sorting and waste reduction efforts, while others do not see the need for such actions. In terms of promoting sustainable transportation, some clubs encourage the use of bicycles and public transport, but the majority do not take any action in this regard. Conclusion: The study reveals that most martial arts clubs in Poznan do not prioritize sustainable environmental management practices, citing other priorities such as athlete comfort and organizational needs. Implementing more systematic pro-ecological actions in these facilities requires greater awareness and support in terms of knowledge and financial resources. These findings provide practical insights for martial arts clubs in Poznan, suggesting that by adopting more comprehensive sustainability practices, they can improve their environmental impact while enhancing their community engagement and organizational reputation. Full article

Rapid weight loss strategies and weight cycling (losing and gaining weight repeatedly) are acknowledged problems in sports with weight categories, including judo. Extreme fasting, especially if combined with dehydration and intense physical exercise, may harm health and development, particularly those of children and teenagers engaging in judo competitions. However, there is substantial evidence for positive health effects of other forms of fasting. Here, we aim to provide an updated overview of the potential health risks associated with extreme dietary strategies in judo and contrast them with health-promoting fasting approaches. We conclude that the literature on the long-term health consequences of fasting in judo is scarce. This applies specifically to its potential association with eating disorders. Although many reports have highlighted the short-term risks of rapid weight loss, vulnerability and protection factors remain poorly understood. Rigorous scientific studies are needed to disentangle the factors that render fasting in judo healthy or unhealthy, considering both physical and mental health. We argue that a better understanding of weight management in judo is crucial to preventing health risks and designing healthy weight loss strategies, especially for young athletes. Full article

This study investigates the rapid weight loss (RWL) and rapid weight gain (RWG) of contest winners and losers from Muay Thai (MT) and mixed martial arts (MMA) events. The relationship between rapid weight change variables of males and females, and competitive success is also examined. Data from a weight management questionnaire was collected one day post-competition from 185 participants across 24 fight events, resulting in 263 responses (MMA: n = 78, MT: n = 185). Official and secondary weigh-in data were provided by the Combat Sports Commission. The results show that in MT, contest winners compared to losers had significantly greater RWL–7 days (5.9 ± 2.6% vs. 4.6 ± 2.7%, p = 0.01), RWG (6.2 ± 2.9% vs. 4.7 ± 2.8%, p = 0.003), and RWG/RWL ratio (108% [86–132%] vs. 86% [60–119%], p = 0.038), while no significant differences were observed for MMA. Mixed logistic regression models that controlled for age showed that a 1% increase in female RWL–24 h ([OR = 1.57, R² = 0.105, p = 0.001]) was associated with a 1.6 times higher likelihood of winning compared to female athletes without this increase. We emphasise that associations do not imply causation, and it is possible that other factors which align with rapid weight change practices may impact the observed relationship. Nonetheless, MT contest winners show greater RWL, RWG, and RWG/RWL ratio than losers, and female rapid weight changes appear to be associated with competitive success in this cohort. Full article

In alignment with European policies regarding intergenerational sports, this study seeks to integrate existing evidence- (i.e., umbrella review) and eminence- (i.e., international validated educational courses for coaches) based knowledge on judo training across the lifespan. For evidence knowledge, searches of the Google Scholar, ISI-WoS, PubMed, and Scopus databases (PROSPERO ID: CRD42024535420) for studies focused on training youth and older judo practitioners, with no time restriction up to April 2024, were conducted. This resulted in 16 systematic reviews meeting the inclusion criteria, with an “excellent” (n = 6), “good” (n = 7), and “fair” (n = 3) quality according to the NIH tool. With a large sample size (n = 372,655), the reviews focused on wellbeing (n = 9; bone status, injuries, and psychophysical effects) and performance (n = 7; athlete success, combat time, rapid weight loss, and the Special Judo Fitness Test), examining athletic levels (novices to Olympics), sex, and age (children to older adults). For eminence knowledge, the International Judo Federation Academy courses encompassed the “Undergraduate Certificate as Judo Instructor” (UCJI), which provides a comprehensive structure for teaching judo, including techniques, moral code, roles, responsibilities, refereeing, safety, and age-specific belt examination requirements and progression, and the “Educating Judo Coaches for Older Practitioners” (EdJCO) curricula, which provide theoretical and applied modules (e.g., ageing, health, and organisation) to train older judo practitioners. The findings were summarised in a framework, highlighting the most relevant aspects of intergenerational judo programmes (i.e., aims, key characteristics, coaches’ roles, barriers, and facilitators). To develop a comprehensive educational intergenerational judo methodology, future research should examine coaches’ and practitioners’ opinions on intergenerational judo activities carried out in different national contexts. Full article

Medieval combat sport is a form of mixed martial art in which combatants engage in fighting using offensive and defensive equipment while dressed in full armor. The sport is considered extremely taxing, making it nearly impossible to maintain the same level of performance. However, this form of sport has not been thoroughly analyzed, and its impact on human physical response is largely unknown. To address this gap, the study reported here aimed to introduce and test a procedure for analyzing human physical responses within the framework of the sport. To accomplish this, two experienced combatants were asked to engage in a series of strikes, performed in the form of a set duel simulating a professional fight competition. The kinematic aspect of the procedure was examined using motion analysis with the help of an IMU suit, while the physiological aspect was evaluated based on blood lactate levels and heart rate measurements. Furthermore, an ergometer test conducted in a laboratory setting aimed to determine the lactate threshold. The duel results showed noticeable decreases in the kinematic aspects of the strikes, such as the velocity of impact, and a dramatic rise in physiological aspects, such as heart rate and blood lactate levels. During the duel sets, the blood lactate surpassed the threshold level, and at the end, the heart rate exceeded the maximum age-related level. Practicing medieval combat sport has been shown to impose an extreme physical load on the bodies of combatants, noticeably affecting their performance levels. Full article