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23 pages, 8126 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Books for Buddhist Embroideries in Seventeenth-Century China: The Cases of Avalokiteśvara and Bodhidharma Designs

by Soohyun Yoon

Religions 2025, 16(4), 422; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040422 - 26 Mar 2025

Viewed by 779

Abstract

Buddhist women in traditional China used embroidery—considered the most feminine art form—to produce images of deities, allowing them to visualize their religious aspirations while adhering to the decorum expected in Confucian society. This paper examines three Buddhist embroidery designs: one visualized in Avalokiteśvara [...] Read more.

Buddhist women in traditional China used embroidery—considered the most feminine art form—to produce images of deities, allowing them to visualize their religious aspirations while adhering to the decorum expected in Confucian society. This paper examines three Buddhist embroidery designs: one visualized in Avalokiteśvara (1619) and two from a catalog of embroidery designs titled A Collection of Scattered Red Clouds (mid-seventeenth century). By analyzing their similarity to the images found in popular illustrated publications of the seventeenth century, this study explores how Buddhist iconography circulated across different media. Through a comparative analysis of the embroidered works and woodblock prints featuring Buddhist deities such as Avalokitesvara and Bodhidharma, I demonstrate that seventeenth-century Chinese women embroiderers often utilized contemporary woodblock prints as models for their devotional embroidered works. The publications that supplied the models for the embroiderers vary from one for a pronounced ritual value—Dharani Sutra of White-robed One—to one that is fundamentally non-religious and educational—a painting manual titled Canon of Painting. This variety highlights the breadth of reading materials that reached the inner chambers of Chinese women, enabling them to engage with religious visual culture beyond their domestic confines and express their spiritual devotion through artistic means. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)

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28 pages, 26908 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Origins and Symbolism of Vaiśravaṇa Iconography and the Impact of the Royal Image as Donor and Protector

by Yeoung Shin Shim

Religions 2025, 16(2), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16020217 - 11 Feb 2025

Viewed by 1683

Abstract

This study examines the origins and symbolic meanings of the iconography of Vaiśravaṇa, which gained prominence in East Asia during the 200 years after the 8th century, through the lens of royal imagery as both a devotee and protector. As Vaiśravaṇa’s iconography spread [...] Read more.

This study examines the origins and symbolic meanings of the iconography of Vaiśravaṇa, which gained prominence in East Asia during the 200 years after the 8th century, through the lens of royal imagery as both a devotee and protector. As Vaiśravaṇa’s iconography spread along the Silk Road, it integrated diverse cultural traditions from the ancient Near East and the Indo-Iranian world, with Gandhāra and Khotan as central hubs. The iconography evolved into a distinctive form, featuring a cylindrical crown adorned with bird motifs, shoulder flames, a cross belt, a Stūpa, a spear, and celestial maidens. Previous studies often limited its origin to either Gandhāra or Khotan; however, this research highlights contributions from both regions, emphasizing their roles in shaping iconography. By focusing on Gandhāra and the Kushan Empire, this study explores how these elements reflect the diversity of regional cultures, political ideals, and religious values. It contextualizes these developments within historical and cultural exchanges between regions, offering a broader understanding of Vaiśravaṇa’s formation. The findings reveal that Vaiśravaṇa’s iconography reflects cultural exchange and symbolizes the sacred earthly ruler. This perspective highlights how regional diversity and intercultural interactions shaped its development, enriching the study of Buddhist iconography. Full article

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20 pages, 11368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping the ‘Three Worlds’: A Preliminary Exploration of the Formation and Iconography of Buddhist Cosmological Paintings in Central Siam

by Ran Xiong

Religions 2024, 15(12), 1464; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15121464 - 30 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1871

Abstract

Buddhist cosmology is prominently reflected in artistic expressions across various regions, particularly through its extensive representation in Buddhist art. From the 12th century onward, depictions of Buddhist cosmology became increasingly significant in Theravāda Buddhist nations in Southeast Asia, underscoring the enduring appeal of [...] Read more.

Buddhist cosmology is prominently reflected in artistic expressions across various regions, particularly through its extensive representation in Buddhist art. From the 12th century onward, depictions of Buddhist cosmology became increasingly significant in Theravāda Buddhist nations in Southeast Asia, underscoring the enduring appeal of these cosmological concepts within local cultures. This paper examines the formation, evolution, and iconography of Buddhist cosmological paintings, with a specific focus on Traiphum representations in central Siam. By drawing on visual and textual evidence from key Theravāda Buddhist centers, including Pagan, Ayutthaya, Thonburi, and Bangkok, the study analyzes the graphic characteristics and symbolic nuances of cosmological imagery through a comparative investigation of murals, illustrated manuscripts, and related texts. Situating Traiphum paintings within the broader framework of religious art and sociopolitical structures, this research highlights their role as both doctrinal expressions and mediums of cultural and ideological integration. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of how Buddhist cosmological theories were visually articulated, transmitted, and localized in pre-modern Southeast Asia. Full article

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30 pages, 15273 KiB

Open AccessArticle

‘Bodhisattva Bodies’: Early Twentieth Century Indian Influences on Modern Japanese Buddhist Art

by Chao Chi Chiu

Arts 2024, 13(4), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/arts13040114 - 30 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2241

Abstract

The first decade of the twentieth century marked a turning point for Japanese Buddhism. With the introduction of Western academia, Buddhist scholars began to uncover the history of Buddhism, and through their efforts, they discovered India as the birthplace of Buddhism. As India [...] Read more.

The first decade of the twentieth century marked a turning point for Japanese Buddhism. With the introduction of Western academia, Buddhist scholars began to uncover the history of Buddhism, and through their efforts, they discovered India as the birthplace of Buddhism. As India began to grow in importance for Japanese Buddhist circles, one unexpected area to receive the most influence was Japanese Buddhist art, especially in the representation of human figures. Some artists began to insert Indian female figures into their art, not only to add a sense of exoticism but also to experiment with novel iconographies that might modernize Buddhist art. One example included the combination of Indian and Japanese female traits to create a culturally fluid figure that highlighted the cultural connection between Japan and India. Other artists were more attracted to “Indianizing” the Buddha in paintings to create more historically authentic art, drawing references from both Indian art and observations of local people. In this paper, I highlight how developments in Buddhist studies in Japan led to a re-establishment of Indo–Japanese relationships. Furthermore, I examine how the attraction towards India for Japanese artists motivated them to travel abroad and seek inspiration to modernize Buddhist art in Japan. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Japanese Buddhist Art of the 19th–21st Centuries)

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21 pages, 5792 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Narrative Integration: An In-Depth Exploration of the “Buddha Story Stele” in the Maiji Mountain Grottoes

by Zejie Lin, Zhijun Li and Meizi Xie

Religions 2024, 15(3), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15030254 - 20 Feb 2024

Viewed by 2355

Abstract

This research delves into the intricacies of the “Buddha Story Stele” in Cave 133 of the Maiji Mountain Grottoes, China, examining the sculptural combinations and conceptual nuances rooted in Buddhist culture from the 5th to the 6th centuries CE. The research focuses on [...] Read more.

This research delves into the intricacies of the “Buddha Story Stele” in Cave 133 of the Maiji Mountain Grottoes, China, examining the sculptural combinations and conceptual nuances rooted in Buddhist culture from the 5th to the 6th centuries CE. The research focuses on discerning the identities of the “Two Adjacent-Seated Buddhas” and the Cross-Legged Bodhisattva carved on the stele, concurrently delving into the embedded symbolic significance within its structural composition. Our investigation posits that the upper, middle, and lower segments of the “Buddha Story Stele” respectively symbolize the post-Nirvana Dharmakāya Shakyamuni, the Bodhisattva Shakyamuni, and the Buddha Shakyamuni of Sumedha. Advancing scholarly discourse, it reevaluates the Cross-Legged Bodhisattva’s identity and the configuration of the “Two Adjacent-Seated Buddhas”, elucidating the interplay of imagery and conceptual themes. This study provides pivotal insights into the sculptural arrangement and religious thought transmission in the Maiji Mountain Grottoes, contributing significant academic and cultural value to preserve this unique heritage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhist Art, Artifact and Culture Worldwide)

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26 pages, 12179 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lute, Sword, Snake, and Parasol—The Formation of the Standard Iconography of the Four Heavenly Kings in Chinese Buddhist Art

by Tianshu Zhu

Religions 2023, 14(6), 798; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14060798 - 16 Jun 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6184

Abstract

The Four Heavenly Kings, Sida Tianwang 四大天王, are the guardians of the four quarters of the world in Buddhism. They are among the most frequently represented protective deities in Buddhist art across different traditions. In their standard iconographies developed in China popular during [...] Read more.

The Four Heavenly Kings, Sida Tianwang 四大天王, are the guardians of the four quarters of the world in Buddhism. They are among the most frequently represented protective deities in Buddhist art across different traditions. In their standard iconographies developed in China popular during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1911), they wear full armor, and each holds exclusive attributes—lute (pipa 琵琶), sword, snake, and parasol—from the east, south, west, to the north respectively. There is no direct textual base in the Chinese cannon for such iconographies. Neither can we find prototypes in India or central Asia. Indeed, how did this iconographic group develop in China? In the past, since the standard iconographies of the Four Heavenly Kings are clear, and identification is no problem, comprehensive in-depth study on this is lacking. Actually, those attributes came from a Tantric tradition related to Tibetan Buddhism filtered through the Xi Xia (1036–1227) and Yuan (1206–1368). What revealed in the development of this iconography is the complex relationship among the Tibetan, Tanguts, Mongols, and Chinese Buddhism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Art of Medieval China)

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23 pages, 12039 KiB

Open AccessArticle

“Intrusive Art” at Ajaṇṭā in the Late Middle Period: The Case of Bhadrāsana Buddhas

by Nicolas Revire

Religions 2022, 13(9), 771; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13090771 - 23 Aug 2022

Viewed by 2459

Abstract

Following the apparent chaos that ensued at Ajaṇṭā during the so-called “period of disruption” in the wake of King Hariṣeṇa’s death (ca. 478–480 CE), local monks and residents in the caves continued to sponsor the donation of what we term “intrusive” images after [...] Read more.

Following the apparent chaos that ensued at Ajaṇṭā during the so-called “period of disruption” in the wake of King Hariṣeṇa’s death (ca. 478–480 CE), local monks and residents in the caves continued to sponsor the donation of what we term “intrusive” images after the late Walter Spink. These new donations consisted of hundreds of Buddha images, a few of which retain today painted or incised dedicatory inscriptions in Sanskrit. Many of these images represent the Buddha preaching and seated in the “auspicious pose” (bhadrāsana) on the conventional lion throne with his legs down. In this article, the author focuses on the images accompanied by inscriptions since they provide a better understanding of the reuse of consecrated caves, and of the nature of this new and brief iconographic development implemented by local Buddhist residents. The sudden appearance of Bhadrāsana Buddhas seems indeed to correlate with a rise to prevalence of Mahāyāna Buddhist practices at Ajaṇṭā during the late Middle Period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Scattering and Destroying: On the Unforeseen Consequences of Collecting and Reuse in South Asian Art)

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31 pages, 14702 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Images of the Crowned Buddha along the Silk Road: Iconography and Ideology

by Rebecca L. Twist

Humanities 2018, 7(4), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/h7040092 - 21 Sep 2018

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 8845

Abstract

The interpretation of early Buddha images with a crown has long been a source of debate. Many scholars have concluded that the iconography of the crown is intended to denote Śākyamuni as a cakravartin or universal Buddha. A few have suggested it represents [...] Read more.

The interpretation of early Buddha images with a crown has long been a source of debate. Many scholars have concluded that the iconography of the crown is intended to denote Śākyamuni as a cakravartin or universal Buddha. A few have suggested it represents a sambhogakāya Buddha in Mahāyāna Buddhism. This art historical and Buddhological study examines the visual record of early crowned Buddhas along the Silk Road, focusing on the iconographic signifiers of the crown, silk items, and ornaments, and interprets them within a broader framework of Buddhist theoretical principals and practice. Not only is this a visual analysis of iconography, it also considers contemporary Buddhist literary evidence that shows the development of the iconography and ideology of the crowned Buddha. As a result of this examination, I propose that the recurring iconographic evidence and the textual evidence underscore the intention to depict a form of sambhogakāya Buddha as an early esoteric meditational construct. Moreover, many Buddhas perform one of the two mudrās that are particular to the esoteric form of Vairocana Buddha. Therefore, the iconography also signifies the ideology of the archetypal Ādi Buddha as an esoteric conception. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Further Explorations Along the Silk Road)

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