Effects of Climate Change on Indigenous Food Systems and Smallholder Farmers in the Tolon District of the Northern Region of Ghana

Abstract

Climate change remains one of the existential threats to humanity in particular and life on earth in general. It presents significant impacts on food and nutritional security, health, and the general well-being of living organisms globally. Despite global efforts to tackle the climate crisis, the record shows that limited progress has been made in curbing the problem. Consequently, this study intends to address the following research question: How does the climate crisis affect indigenous food systems, farmers’ livelihoods, and local communities in the study area? This study was conducted in the Tolon district of the northern region of Ghana from 2017 to 2022. Grounded in the theoretical prism of political ecology and indigenous knowledge perspective, we selected individuals who were smallholder farmers, students, faculty members, extension officers, and an administrator from the Ministry of Food and Agriculture. The data were gathered through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and workshops and analyzed using coding, thematization, and inferences drawn from the literature and authors’ experiences. This study discovered some of the effects of a changing climate, including the extinction of indigenous food crops, poor yield resulting in poverty, and food and nutritional insecurity. This study concludes that failure to tackle climate change could pose a greater threat to the survival of smallholder households in Ghana.

1. Introduction

Climate change remains one of the existential threats to humanity in particular and life on earth in general. It has striking impacts on food and nutritional security, health, and the general well-being of people worldwide [1]. The rise in global temperatures and changes in weather patterns raise serious concerns about food safety, exposing the population to various food and waterborne diseases, antimicrobial resistance in agriculture, and chronic bio-accumulation of chemicals in the human body [1]. It is estimated that approximately 3.6 billion individuals reside in communities susceptible to the climate crisis, with dire repercussions [1]. The populations vulnerable to climate change include low-income households, smallholder farming households and their families, ethnic minorities, women and children, and new immigrants [2,3]. Additionally, climate stressors significantly threaten the operation of the food systems, including production, processing, distribution, consumption, and reuse of food waste [4,5]. The disruption of the food system aggravates the existing food insecurity and access to healthy and nutritious food, particularly in communities at risk of hunger and malnutrition [6,7]. The prevalence of malnutrition contributes to 3.5 million deaths annually across the globe, with this number anticipated to increase due to the decline in the production of essential food and livestock in many developing countries because of the climate crisis [8]. Moreover, variations in carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere and a decline in pollination impose negative consequences on crop production, resulting in decreased crop yield and the quality of nutritional content in food [4]. Furthermore, greenhouse gas emissions contributed to the rise in the number of individuals who experienced malnutrition and a decline in food security in sub-Saharan African countries [9]. In 2022, approximately 868 million individuals faced moderate to severe levels of food insecurity in Africa [10], with serious health implications. It is projected that the average temperature in Africa will rise by 3 to 4 °C within the next century, which is believed to be higher than the average global temperature during the same period [9].

Like most sub-Saharan African countries, Ghana remains one of the countries likely to experience the devastating effects of climate change. Between 2010 and 2013, the Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) reported that Africa experienced the highest temperatures [11]. The AGRA further noted that Navrongo, a town in the upper east region of Ghana, recorded one of the highest temperatures (43 °C) on record [11]. The average temperature in Ghana has increased by 0.21 °C each decade, and it is predicted to rise anywhere from 1.7 °C to 2.04 °C by 2030 [6]. The climate crisis has negative repercussions on the weather patterns in West Africa, with many studies reporting a 20% to 40% decline in rainfall, leading to extended periods of drought in these regions [11]. Ghana has been experiencing a decline in rainfall, alteration in weather patterns, droughts, floods, and high temperatures, all affecting the agriculture sector [12]. High temperatures have led to several bushfires and floods, causing significant damage to biodiversity and farms in Ghana, an essential resource that communities and smallholder farmers rely on for their livelihood [12]. High temperatures are detrimental to some crops, affecting food production in Ghana [6]. Due to the climate crisis, several staple crops such as cereals, vegetables, roots, and tubers produced in Ghana have been affected [6]. Dry weather conditions and rising temperatures affect soil moisture and nutrient uptake in food crops, leading to reduced crop yields and negatively impacting the well-being of smallholder farmers [13,14]. Maziya and colleagues found that climate change has eroded livelihood assets, posing a threat to the well-being of smallholder farmers [15] and increasing rural poverty [16]. However, they disclosed that access to farm-based credit, government funding, and membership of farmer-based organizations increased farmers’ resilience to climate change [17,18]. Similarly, a study in Ethiopia found that farmers who adopted a climate adaptation strategy were more resilient to food insecurity compared to those who did not, and adopting multiple strategies made farmers even more resilient [19]. A study conducted in the upper west region of Ghana found that farmers’ awareness of climate change early warning systems could help improve farmers’ resiliency [20].

Furthermore, climate conditions adversely impact livestock production, resulting in decreased milk production, animal growth, and reproduction and increased incidences of disease in livestock [13]. A study in Ghana found that floods and droughts resulted in an approximate 6.3% decline in maize production and a 9.3% decline in rice yield [11]. Indigenous fruit trees such as shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) and dawadawa (Parkia biglobosa) found in Northern Ghana have also experienced adverse consequences of climate change despite their resistance to drought [21]. These fruit tree crops are susceptible to harsh, extreme climate conditions, particularly droughts, bushfires, and rainstorms, causing a decline in fruit yield [21]. The reduction in agricultural productivity has a direct consequence on the livelihood of vulnerable populations, such as less-resourceful smallholder farmers, women and children, and rural households in Ghana. Additionally, negative climatic conditions affect the availability of fruits for communities in Ghana and pose a higher threat of extinction of indigenous food species [21]. A study in Ghana found that climate change could exacerbate food insecurity, displacing smallholder farming households and negatively affecting the Ghanaian economy, unless serious action is taken to curb the situation [6]. Undoubtedly, the decline in farm productivity has a detrimental impact on the livelihood of vulnerable populations in Ghana, putting them at risk of poverty and hunger [12].

In 2020, approximately 346.6 million individuals reported experiencing food insecurity in Africa, a significant increase from the 2014 figure of roughly 203.5 million [9]. West African populations are the most susceptible to food insecurity in the region, with about 28.8% of their people experiencing food insecurity in 2020 compared to 8.6% of individuals in 2014 [9]. The agriculture sector plays a key role in Ghana’s economy, employing approximately 44.7% of individuals in the country [6,22]. Furthermore, the export earnings from crops such as cocoa and non-traditional export crops significantly contribute to gross domestic product (GDP) [6]. In Ghana, cassava, cocoyam, and yam constitute about 58% of the average food intake, serving as an essential food source for individuals in rural, urban, and peri-urban communities [6]. Smallholder farmers produce approximately 80% of Ghanaian food stock [11]. Therefore, any factor that threatens their livelihood could have a devastating impact on national food security. The irony of the situation is that smallholder farmers who contribute little to climate change experience the most catastrophic effects of it. Although climate change has been studied in Ghana, there is inadequate information regarding the lived realities of smallholder farmers in the Tolon district of the northern region of Ghana. Furthermore, most studies on climate change in Ghana are quantitative, lacking the perspectives of smallholder farmers on their lived experiences. This study is part of a broader study that investigated the environmental challenges facing smallholder farmers and how smallholder farmers in Ghana are affected by these challenges. However, this paper addresses the following research question: How does climate change affect indigenous food systems, farmers’ livelihoods, and local communities in the Tolon district of northern region of Ghana? This study will shed light on the extent to which the effects of climate change impact smallholder farmers’ work and livelihoods, in addition to the indigenous food system and local communities in Ghana.

2. Methodology

Study Area: This study was conducted in Ghana, located in the western part of Africa, bordered by the Atlantic Ocean on the south, Togo on the east, Côte d’Ivoire on the west, and Burkina Faso to the north (Figure 1). Ghana lies between the latitudes 5° N and 11° N and between longitudes 1°15′ E and 3°15′ W, with the Greenwich Meridian passing through Tema. Ghana has sixteen (21) administrative regions, which host seven agroecological zones: Sudan Savannah, Guinea Savannah, transitional zone, deciduous forest, moist evergreen, wet evergreen, and coastal Savannah. These agroecological zones can be categorized into three belts, namely northern, middle, and southern belts. The majority of women (81.3%) and men (68.9%) in the informal sector in Ghana engage in agriculture or agricultural-related activities [22]. This study was conducted in the Tolon district of northern region because of worsening climatic conditions, including rising temperature, erratic rainfall, and intermittent floods [2,3,13,23,24,25]. The northern region lies in the dry equatorial Savannah zone. The annual rainfall recorded in the region varies between 750 mm and 1050 mm. The region is relatively dry and has a single rainy season; hence, it has one cropping season compared to the regions in the southern part of Ghana, which have two cropping seasons: major and minor cropping seasons. Livestock rearing is common in the northern region because of the dry conditions, which minimize pest infestation and the abundance of grassland, which serves as grazing ground for livestock. The northern region was selected because farmers working within the various locations could share their varied lived experiences on how the ecological system and environmental changes, both climate and physical, have impacted the food systems over the years. The northern region constitutes one of the prominent regions noted for the production of most indigenous cereals, such as millet and sorghum, and various leguminous crops and roots and tubers.

Sampling

This study used multistage sampling techniques to select research participants. The first stage involves selecting one administrative region, and the northern region was selected based on worsening climate conditions [2,13,24]. In the second stage, we purposefully selected the Tolon district based on the known climatic conditions and also due to the fact that the district hosts the University for Development Studies, Nyankpala campus. This university specializes in training agricultural and environmental science students entrusted with the responsibility to address some of the environmental challenges confronting the region. Consequently, the researchers wanted to capture the perspectives of the students and assess how the research activities in the university translated to environmental stewardship in the study area. The third stage comprises selecting the communities in which the participants were drawn. Six communities, namely Wantugu, Nyujagyili, Gurumanchayili, Worribogu Kambonaayili, Nafarung, and Tingoli, were selected in consultation with agricultural extension officers and with the permission of the District Director of Agriculture, based on the farming activities in these communities. In the final stage, we selected individuals for in-depth interviews and a focus group. We selected individuals comprising 46 smallholder farmers, 5 students from the University for Development Studies, 2 extension officers, 1 administrator from the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, and 2 faculty members of the University of Development Studies. The sample size of the farmers was based on saturation. However, the remaining participants were selected based on their knowledge and engagement with the community. The experts were selected based on the recommendations from the extension officers, and students were recommended by their lecturer.

Data collection: The researchers used various qualitative data collection methods: in-depth interviews, focus groups, and workshops to obtain data for analysis. The data were collected in three phases. The first phase occurred when the researcher visited Ghana from March to June in 2017 for preliminary information gathering to select the study area and develop an acquaintance with the relevant authorities. The second phase lasted from February to March 2019, and the final stage extended from November 2021 to February 2022. This study was conducted for a long duration to ensure that the changes in environmental conditions are long-term rather than normal weather changing patterns. The University of Toronto Ethics Board approved this study. The principal investigator (PI) interviewed 56 individuals, comprising 20 women and 36 men. This study was grounded in two theoretical frameworks: political ecology and indigenous knowledge perspectives.

In-depth Interviews: The researchers conducted in-depth interviews to gather information on the personal knowledge, experiences, and sometimes opinions of the individual participants. In-depth interviews were considered a suitable approach for this study because they facilitated the collection of detailed and comprehensive data, which are more representative of a phenomenon and less biased compared to structured interviews [2,27]. Farmers were asked questions such as how long have you been farming? What are some of the environmental challenges you have observed over the period? How do the environmental challenges affect you? What are some of the strategies you adopt to survive the challenges? Students were asked questions such as how do you or the school interact with the local farmers in this community? What is nature of the interactions? As an agricultural student, how do you intend to address farmers’ challenges through your research? Furthermore, questions such as what are your general perceptions about the activities of farmers in the surrounding communities? and how do you ensure the research in this university benefits the local farmers? were posed to the faculty. The representative of peasant farmers was asked what are the challenges small-scale and resource-poor farmers face in Ghana? What is your organization doing to improve the resiliency of local farmers?

Focus Group: The researchers conducted two focus group discussions to obtain information in a group setting. The composition of the group included individuals of various ages. The researchers organized male-only and female-only groups to avoid patriarchal influence on the data collection process. The researchers used this approach to break the barriers in some communities where women feel reluctant to speak freely among males due to religious and cultural reasons. The focus groups were composed of between 6 and 12 smallholders following the recommendation of Creswell [28]. The group diversity and dynamics provided an opportunity to observe the interactions, behaviors, attitudes, and beliefs exhibited in a group situation [29]. Hence, focus group discussion was employed to capture the different group dynamics, experiences, attitudes, and understanding as participants relaxed and interacted freely with each other in a group within this social context [30]. The focus group provided opportunities for the researchers to validate some of the information obtained from the in-depth interviews. Some of the questions posed to the participants included how long have you been farming, and what are some of the environmental changes you have noticed over the years? How do the changes affect the local food system and your well-being? What are some of the measures you adopt to mitigate the effects, if any? What are the philosophical principles behind those measures?

Workshops: To ensure the transfer of knowledge between the research team (i.e., PI and extension officer) and participating communities, the researchers conducted three community workshops to present to the communities the findings of a previous study on the nutritional benefits of indigenous food crops and healthy food choices. After the presentation, the researchers invited questions and sought to learn about the effects of climate change on the livelihood of the communities. The researchers further used the workshops to validate information gathered from in-depth interviews and focus groups to ensure the credibility of the data. Furthermore, the workshop was employed to avoid the conundrum of only taking information from the communities without giving back.

Data Analysis: The data collected from in-depth interviews, focus groups, and workshops were transcribed, and soft copies were prepared for coding. The researchers read through the entire data to make sense of the information gathered and correct typos and grammatical mistakes. The transcribed data were encrypted and saved with a password and were accessible only to the researchers. The researchers used both descriptive and process manual coding [31] for the analysis. The data analysis process followed the steps proposed by Creswell [28]. The researchers used codes to create categories, and the categories were then grouped into themes. Themes constitute units derived from conversations, vocabulary, recurrent events, meanings, and feelings of a research participant or community [32]. The themes were analyzed, and inferences were drawn from the literature and researchers’ knowledge from previous studies.

Ethical Considerations: The University of Toronto Research Ethics Board approved this study. The research followed all the recommendations of the Ethics Board. The research participants were informed of their rights and privileges before the commencement of the study. Some of these rights and privileges include participants’ rights to stop the interview or focus group or withdraw from the study at any time without providing reasons, their right to refuse to answer questions, and their right to privacy and confidentiality. The participants were allowed to choose the venue of the interview and focus group on the condition that the place must be devoid of noise and interruption. The participants were not compensated monetarily, but they were given tokens in the form of exercise books, pens, pencils, and soaps, depending on the needs of the communities. This gesture ensured that the participants did not feel short-changed after our interactions and felt their expertise and time were valuable to the conduct of the research. The researchers sought permission from the District Director of Agriculture in the study area, who assigned two agricultural extension agents designated for the area to guide the researchers through the communities. The researchers visited chiefs from the various communities to seek their permission and blessings to conduct the studies.

3. Results and Discussion

The composite demographic information of the research participants is presented in

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the participants.

Category	Item	Tolon District of the Northern Region of Ghana
		Freq	%
Age group	20–29	16	28.6
	30–39	10	17.8
	40–49	17	30.4
	50–59	10	17.8
	60–69	3	5.4
	70–79	0	0.0
	Total	56	100.0
Gender of Participant	Male	36	64.3
	Female	20	35.7
	Total	56	100
Religion	Muslim	50	89.3
	Christian	6	10.7
	Traditional	0	00
	Total	56	100.0
Highest Education	None	38	67.9
	Primary	2	3.6
	JHS/MSCL	3	5.4
	SSCE	3	5.4
	Adult Educ.	1	1.8
	Tertiary	9	16.1
	Total	56	100.0

Sources: Field 2022.

. The table suggests that the participants were evenly distributed across different age groups, with the majority (30%) between the ages of 40 and 49 and the least represented group (0.0%) between 70 and 79 years. The age distribution suggests that the farmers were youthful. Male farmers represented the majority (64.3%), while a considerable number of females (35.7%) were represented. This is expected because traditions and customs in some of the northern communities in Ghana impede women’s access to land [33], as in other African countries, including Tanzania [34]. Religious affiliation of the participants indicates that the majority (89.3%) of participants were Muslims, 10.7% identified as Christians, and none indicated themselves as belonging to the African Traditional Religion (ATR). This is expected because Ghana is divided on religious lines, with the majority of people in the south being Christians and the majority of the people in the north being Muslims. Even though none of the participants admitted belonging to ATR, the participants admitted to engaging in practices such as pouring libation or offering sacrifices to avert prolonged drought, practices that are associated with ATR. This implies that some participants combined ATR with one of the dominant religions in Ghana. The data on the participants’ education status indicate that most participants (67.9%) had no formal education, 16.1% had tertiary education, 5.4% had junior high and senior high school certificates each, and 3.6% had primary education. The lower level of education among the participants implies that farmers could face difficulty applying agrochemicals using the directions on the label.

Effect of Environmental Challenges

The findings of this study reveal that smallholder farmers face environmental challenges such as erratic rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, bushfires/bush burning, deforestation, soil depletion, and over-reliance on and misuse of agrochemicals. These challenges pose significant threats to the agricultural productivity of smallholders. The effects of the environmental challenges are discussed below.

(a). Acute Water Shortages

The effects of a worsening climate are disproportionately felt by resource-poor farmers who have contributed little to climate change. This raises serious concerns among the smallholders in Ghana. For instance, the combined effects of the worsening climatic conditions have resulted in acute water shortages in the communities we visited in the Tolon district of the northern region of Ghana. Women and children spent hours searching for water for household use, and consequently these women cannot engage in income-generating activities to augment household income, as noted by one of the participants:

We go a long distance to go and fetch water. I wake up at dawn and back this child to go and fetch one gallon by the time I get here. I have four children and I have to bath them. By the time I finished bathing these children, what is left for breakfast is just small. I have to manage, after that I have to go back again so all the time I have to be walking and carrying one garwa (gallon) in and out. And then secondly, because of the scarcity of water, I do not engage in any income-generating activities.

(Mairi)

Most of the farming communities in the northern region of Ghana are off-grid; therefore, they lack amenities such as pipe-born water and, to some extent, they rely mainly on streams, dams, rivers, and wells. These natural sources of water dry out during the dry season, resulting in acute water shortages in farming communities. The quote above highlights the struggles of women in the Tolon district of the northern region in accessing one of life’s necessities, water, which we take for granted. This finding confirms the work of Alhassan et al. [35], who discovered that water scarcity in the northern part of Ghana disproportionately affects women. Similarly, Abanyie, Amuah & Nang [36] reported that water scarcity in the northern region has resulted in poor sanitation and resultant waterborne diseases such as typhoid and diarrhea. We further noted that children spent hours searching for water, resulting in lateness to school, affecting their academic performance. The search for water is crucial regardless of barriers individuals encounter due to the need for water for household purposes such as cooking and cleaning, in addition to agricultural practices, broadening the existing social disparities. Some women in the study area grow African indigenous leafy vegetables that they can sell. Their businesses are truncated during the dry season because of a lack of water, causing a high poverty rate among the women in the northern region. The poverty rate among women in the northern regions of Ghana is higher than the national average, and the five northern regions are the poorest in Ghana [22].

The poverty situation in the northern regions can be attributed to the harsh climate and the colonial policies that deprived these regions of development until Ghana gained its independence from the British in 1957. The British colonial rule in Ghana impoverished the northern regions and only recruited men for military purposes because of their stature and physique. Apart from women and children, men are also affected by climate change. Men are unable to practice sustainable farming, such as growing crops and rearing livestock on the same piece of land. Apart from supplementing household income, this practice also enables farmers to use animal droppings as manure to improve soil fertility, reduce soil acidity, and improve soil texture. Dawuni emphasized this succinctly:

Ooye, if you look at the lack of water situation, it has affected me drastically, because a good farmer should have animals so that he can rely on the animals at any time he wants. But this is a situation because of a lack of water; most of the animals die because of starvation from water. And even if you say you want to move to the outskirts and make a structure for them, it will require water. And secondly, if you construct a structure and put the animals there, you will not get water for them to drink. So, it’s also another issue.

The alarming climate crisis makes the water available for livestock challenging, directly affecting milk and meat production and increasing the likelihood of disease [13,37,38]. This can further disrupt the food systems in Ghana, negatively affecting local communities and the livelihood of smallholder farmers. The climate crisis has resulted in increased disease outbreaks affecting the health of livestock. Approximately 85% of farmers reported losing livestock within 12 months due to various factors related to disease and environmental stressors, resulting in more than half of them experiencing adverse mental health challenges [39], as livestock are an essential source of food and income. Furthermore, during rainy conditions, the overuse or misuse of agrochemicals contributes to chemical runoff into lakes and rivers, and some chemicals leach on and contaminate water sources, resulting in poor water quality and putting individuals at risk of various health complications and diseases [40]. High levels of heavy metals such as lead and arsenic have been found in groundwater, exceeding the drinking water levels recommended by the World Health Organization, with regions near Southwest and Northern Ghana most affected by the inadequate quality of the water [41]. These contaminated water sources are also consumed by livestock and ingested by individuals, providing another pathway for these chemicals to enter the human body, posing a serious public health concern. Besides the difficulty of accessing water, the turbidity of the water during the dry season is of great concern to the participants:

…now if you look at the water situation here, if you go and see the water we and the other surrounding communities are drinking, if you see it and they tell you animals will drink this water, you will say it is a lie. But that is what we rely on. But previously, we had better water than what we are now drinking.

(Dawuni)

Dawuni’s quotes highlight that the water situation is worsening due to the changing climate. He noted how poor water quality affects several communities in the northern regions of Ghana, raising concerns about the detrimental effects on both human and animal health and well-being. Due to environmental stressors and the prevalence of water shortages, local communities are under stress, affecting their well-being.

(b). Extinction of Indigenous Crops

The northern regions of Ghana are custodians of indigenous food, including cereals (e.g., millet, sorghum), roots and tubers (i.e., species of yam), and African indigenous leafy vegetables (AFLVs) (e.g., baobao leaves, ayoyo, etc.) due to the resilience of the food system to colonization. However, the participants noted with concern the extinction of the indigenous food crops. Participants attributed this extinction to a changing climate, especially rising temperatures, making it difficult for farmers to grow or store indigenous food crops. The farmers reported that they cannot grow yams because the crops get cooked by the heat of the soil, reducing the shelf life of harvested yams. Another reason the participants attributed to the extinction of indigenous crops is the use of agrochemicals, which render the soil unsuitable for these crops [2,24]. The findings of this study agree with Tetteh et al. [6], who found that high temperatures have negative effects on soil fertility and crop productivity.

Heat and dry climate conditions limit the ability of the crops to absorb essential nutrients and moisture required for growth, hindering crop productivity [13]. The effects of prolonged droughts in Ghana distress indigenous fruit trees like shea and dawadawa, with 67% of farmers noting a decline in fruit size, quality, and yield in shea trees, and observed a similar reduction of 68% in dawadawa trees [21]. With the rising temperatures and worsening climate crisis, the productivity of traditional crops such as maize and indigenous crops such as sorghum is compromised in Ghana [42]. This raises serious concerns because indigenous crops serve as a significant source of food for local communities and livelihood for smallholder farmers in Ghana. Moreover, indigenous crops are also affected by erratic rainfall and shorter periods of rain. Derbile et al. [21] found that extreme rainfall has significant consequences on indigenous fruit trees, such as shea and dawadawa, in Northern Ghana. The frequency and intensity of rainfall during these months cause pollen to shed prematurely, leading to reduced fruit yields, particularly for shea trees [21]. Furthermore, short periods of rainfall and prolonged droughts in Ghana affect the growth of indigenous crops, resulting in poor crop productivity, as these plants are sensitive to adverse weather conditions [2,21]. Furthermore, low crop productivity impacts the food supply chain and intensifies the existing food insecurity in Ghana. Bushfires and wildfires have also increased due to the climate crisis, affecting biodiversity with negative health consequences. In addition, the escalating climate crisis contributes to emerging pest and disease outbreaks, destroying indigenous crops and posing health challenges to humans and livestock. The loss of these indigenous food crops poses a greater challenge to food and nutrition security, impacting the health and well-being and destroying the cultural identity of the people.

(c). Erosion of Indigenous and Sustainable Farming Practices

For centuries, local farmers in Ghana have used indigenous farming practices to sustain food production in local communities. These farming practices are unique to different communities, some of which are rooted in the cultural identity of the people. However, the climate crisis and imposition of hybrid crops onto local communities are eroding these cultural practices. A participant at one of the workshops raised the following concerns:

My concern is that even some of us who are quite young, we met some of these indigenous crops, and if you look at this community, we were good at producing some particular variety of yams and millet. There is another one we call yellow yam, and in those days, you could make the yam mound, you plant the yam, and you would get that yellow yam from it. At the same time, you could plant pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) around the mounds, but now, if you do all these things, it will not work. The yam seed, after harvest, when you go and put it down, it will rot, and we don’t have any knowledge as to what to do to be able to maintain all these things. So, because we are there and because we don’t have a solution to these problems, we ignore it. So, we are sure these are practically some of the issues that have led to some of these indigenous crops diminishing small, small.

(WS1)

The interesting revelation from this quote indicates the cultural practice of growing pigeon pea, a leguminous crop, besides yam mounds. The wisdom behind this practice is that leguminous plants capture atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into nitrate for plant intake [43]. Furthermore, pigeon pea provides shade to retain soil moisture and serves as a stake for the yam vines. Apart from nutrient supply to the crop, the practice minimizes the cutting down of trees, which are scarce in the north, to provide stakes, thereby checking deforestation. According to File & Nhamo [44], indigenous farming practices are passed down from older generations to future generations [45,46]. However, the climate crisis and replacement of indigenous methods with conventional practices threatened the effectiveness and efficiency of these indigenous farming methods [2,44], compromising agricultural productivity and the livelihood of smallholder farmers. Some farmers still choose to hold onto indigenous farming methods due to various factors such as financial constraints, farm size, and age, while others have adopted a combination of indigenous and Western farming methods or heavily rely on modern agriculture practices [44], leading to the erosion of indigenous farming practices.

Smallholder farmers in typical farming communities have inadequate financial resources to afford conventional practices, including the use of agrochemicals [44]. Research suggests that commercial farmers with larger farm sizes requiring significant labor and resources tend to adopt conventional agricultural practices [44,45] to ease work and increase agricultural productivity, contributing to the decline in the use of indigenous practices. The shift towards farmers adopting more conventional methods has adverse environmental consequences, especially with the ongoing climate crisis. These conventional agricultural methods further compromise the environmental conditions in Ghana. However, Kelvin [45] found that water scarcity and soil depletion compel farmers to abandon indigenous practices and utilize conventional agricultural methods [45]. That said, it is instructive to note that farmers have lost their indigenous seeds and mostly use hybrid seeds, which are less resistant to environmental stress [2]. The effects of the climate crisis have led to an over-reliance on agrochemicals by many smallholder farmers in response to the rise in the incidence of pests, diseases, and environmental consequences, as well as the need to produce sufficient food for the growing population [24]. While some farmers are unaware of the adverse effects that some conventional agricultural practices have on the environment, ecosystem, and human health, others acknowledge their consequences [24] but continue to use them due to their short-term effectiveness in cultivating crops, leading to the erosion of indigenous farming practices.

(d). Food and Nutritional Insecurity

Various studies have discovered that indigenous food crops are not just resistant and adaptable to the local environment but also more nutritious compared to conventional food crops [2,17,47,48]. However, their consumption in southern urban communities in Ghana is saddled with stigma and associated with poverty [47]. Despite their low patronage in the southern part of Ghana, their consumption is high in the northern regions. Nevertheless, the climate crisis is accelerating their extinction, leading to food and nutritional insecurity:

Formerly, when there were enough rains, we were cultivating sorghum, and that was completing our foodstuffs. But nowadays, because we have fewer rains, sorghum cannot be cultivated because it is a long-duration crop. So, it affects our food situation in the community.

(Nimatu)

Participants’ assertions emphasize how climate stressors are jeopardizing the food security situation in the northern regions and Ghana as a whole. Population increases in Ghana put pressure on the sustenance of the local food system [45]. In Ghana, nearly 1.2 million individuals, most of whom are smallholder farmer households, experience food insecurity due to environmental stressors that hinder their agricultural productivity, and about 2 million individuals are at risk of experiencing food insecurity as climate changes worsen [11]. This global health issue is further aggravated due to environmental factors related to climate conditions, agrochemical use, and soil depletion [24]. Fish and mollusks are common food sources in northern Ghana; however, the environmental stressors raise serious issues with the quality of these foods, affecting the food supply for local communities and the income of smallholder farmers [40]. This affects the livelihood of smallholder farmers and the availability of food for local communities, exacerbating the existing food insecurity in Ghana. The agricultural barriers stemming from the climate crisis affect the food system and individuals’ access to nutritious, dense food, exacerbating food insecurity in communities at risk of hunger and malnutrition [7]. These public health issues exacerbate social inequalities in Ghana, adversely affecting the health of individuals in the country. A study found that approximately 62% of smallholder farming households reported a decline in availability and access to desired food, with many reducing food consumption because of food insecurity [11]. Similarly, Yamba et al.’s [12,49] study discovered that over 60% of smallholder farmers experience a decline in crop yield because of various environmental factors. When viewing this situation from a gendered perspective, smallholder farming households led by women are even more greatly affected by low agricultural productivity and forced to rely on nonfarm income-generating activities to survive [12]. The agriculture sector is crucial to the economy and local communities in Ghana, employing close to half of the individuals in the country [6]. The Sustainable Development Goal 2 “zero hunger” aims to end hunger, enhancing nutrition and guaranteeing food security worldwide by 2030 [18,49,50]. Significant progress has been made in recent years towards achieving this goal by 2030, particularly in developing countries like Ghana. However, the climate crisis and intensifying environmental stressors in Ghana create obstacles to achieving food security, putting vulnerable individuals at risk of adverse health and widening existing social disparities in Ghana. Prompt action is necessary to address the repercussions of climate change on the agricultural food system and ensure that the years of work carried out to achieve food security by 2030 are not further interrupted.

Limitations of the Study

As a qualitative study, the goal of this study is not generalization; therefore, the findings of this study cannot be generalized to the whole nation due to the small sample size and unique geographical location of the study area. The researchers did not discuss the environmental or climate change challenges facing the smallholder farmers; these will be highlighted in subsequent papers.

4. Conclusions

This study explored the effects of the climate crisis on smallholder farming households in the Tolon district of the northern region of Ghana. Using a theoretical prism of political ecology and an indigenous knowledge perspective, this qualitative study identified key climate challenges facing farmers, including prolonged droughts, rampant bushfires/bush burning, deforestation, soil depletion, and the over-reliance and misuse of agrochemicals. The climate crisis has resulted in acute water shortages, causing water scarcity in communities. The water scarcity disproportionately affects women and children who spend hours searching for water. Due to the daily struggle of searching for water, women in the communities do not engage in income-generating activities during the dry season. Children attend school late, and their performance is affected because of the time spent searching for water for household use. The children’s school attendance and performance are also affected because of lateness to school, or limited time available for learning or engaging in exercise, because of time spent searching for water. Secondly, this study found that most indigenous crops are going extinct due to worsening climatic conditions, such as erratic rainfall, heat in the soil killing yams, or rising temperatures shortening the shelf life of crops. Increased agrochemical usage further contributes to the extinction of most indigenous crops in Ghana because these crops do not grow well in chemically contaminated soil. Thirdly, because of the extinction of indigenous crops, decreased crop yield or crop failures occasioned by the climate crisis resulted in food insecurity. Finally, the climate crisis has resulted in the erosion of indigenous and sustainable farming practices. For instance, farmers cannot engage in indigenous sustainable practices of growing yams and pigeon peas due to the extinction of yams. Based on the findings of this study and the fact that the effects of climate change are real and long-lasting, we recommend further studies delving into livelihood strategies that would improve farmers’ resiliency to climate change.