Sustainable Economic Security for Building Disaster-Resilient Communities in Vulnerable Coastal Areas of Bangladesh

Abstract

The present study was conducted in Dacope Upazila, a sub-district located within the Khulna District of the coastal region in Bangladesh. The research methods employed included the implementation of 350 household questionnaire surveys (HQSs), 12 focus group discussions (FGDs), and 20 key informant interviews (KIIs) to assess economic security status in disaster-vulnerable areas. The findings indicate that the economic well-being of the region is precarious due to a paucity of revenue sources and the occurrence of various calamitous events, induced risks, and vulnerabilities. To achieve long-term economic security for households, a considerable proportion of the population (approximately 22%) in the study areas is dependent on agricultural activities for their livelihoods. The study also revealed that approximately 22% of households in the study areas reported experiencing salinity intrusion. Furthermore, most of the households, around 68%, reported cyclones as their primary obstacle to building disaster-resilient communities. Consequently, the prevailing local and institutional strategies to ensure economic security were found to be inadequate and unsustainable in the study upazila. Therefore, the study resulted in the formulation of a conceptual framework intended to measure the contribution of economic security to the adaptability and sustainability of disaster-resilient communities in vulnerable coastal areas of Bangladesh.

1. Introduction

It is an indisputable fact that the increasing frequency and severity of natural disasters and extreme weather events around the world are influenced by climate change [1,2]. Bangladesh is globally recognized as one of the most climate-vulnerable countries, particularly in its extensive coastal regions, which are home to approximately 35 million people [3]. Over the past few decades, Bangladesh has experienced a series of natural disasters, including recurrent cyclones, floods, and drought events. Coastal dwellers are particularly vulnerable to a range of hazards, including but not limited to coastal flooding, cyclones, and tsunamis. Among these, cyclones and induced storm surges are the most common natural hazards [3,4]. As a result, the number of victims of these natural disasters and extreme weather events has increased dramatically over the past decade. Beyond the immediate loss of life, these events have a detrimental effect on the progression of society, economy, and technology, particularly in developing nations, exacerbating the vulnerabilities of affected populations [5]. Coastal Bangladesh covers an estimated area of 47 thousand sq. km, which is divided into three distinct shoreline-adjacent zones, i.e., southwestern, south-central, and southeastern zones [6]. Even though the entire coastal region of Bangladesh is susceptible to a variety of disasters, historical evidence and scientific studies indicate that the population in the southwest part of the country is particularly vulnerable to various hydro-meteorological disasters, including cyclones, storm surges, salinity intrusion, and tidal flooding [7]. Marginalized populations whose livelihoods are dependent on natural resources are confronted with significant challenges and limitations in achieving adequate well-being in the context of a changing climate [3,8]. Livelihoods are subject to disruption from a variety of environmental hazards, including extreme weather events such as tropical cyclones, heavy downpours, floods, erosion, storm surges, and sea turbulence, as well as slow-onset disasters like salinization, dryness, and ecosystem degradation [9,10,11]. Households with lower incomes are disproportionately impacted and possess a reduced capacity to cope with the consequences of natural disasters. It has been documented that approximately one-third of their annual household income is forfeited due to the impact of extreme climate-induced disasters [12,13,14,15].

The development of coastal community resilience through a sustainable economic security approach aims to facilitate climate change adaptation to natural hazard risks in Bangladesh [16]. It is imperative to acknowledge the escalating threat to the economy confronting these regions, as they are increasingly vulnerable to a multitude of climate-induced hazards and the broader context of climate change [17]. Therefore, the notion of economic security is based on the seven components of human security, which are as follows: economic security, food security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security, and political security. [18,19]. These components are inextricably linked to economic sustainability and the absence of vulnerability, fear, want, and shame. According to the assessment report by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in 2013, the destruction of rice production due to a cyclonic storm could amount to approximately one million tons [20]. This is analogous to the amount of rice production that was destroyed in the aftermath of Cyclone Sidr in 2007. Moreover, from 1970 to 2009, approximately 3.4 million hectares of land experienced complete damage, while 8.4 million hectares sustained partial damage [21]. Consequently, there is an imperative to investigate potential strategies that could foster economic resilience among households in coastal Bangladesh. This study places particular emphasis on coastal households, which are predominantly vulnerable due to cyclones [22,23,24]. The present study explores the existing economic conditions of vulnerable households [25,26,27] through sustainable economic security [28,29,30]. Therefore, the objective of this study is to explore the multifaceted challenges of sustainable economic security to build disaster-resilient communities in vulnerable coastal areas of Bangladesh. In summary, the coastal region of Bangladesh in South Asia stands to benefit economically from the economic security notion’s applications while concurrently promoting the reduction of disaster vulnerabilities by prioritizing regional social advancement and coastal environmental sustainability. To achieve the objectives of ensuring economic security and safeguarding the prosperity and disaster resilience of East and Southeast Asian countries, it is imperative that policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders engage in collaborative efforts [29,31]. This challenge is aligned with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11, which aims to make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable [31,32]. The achievement of SDG-11, which emphasizes the development of sustainable cities and communities, is imperative for ensuring economic security [33]. SDG 13, entitled “Climate Action”, underscores the pressing imperative to address climate change and its deleterious consequences by fortifying resilience and adaptive capacity in vulnerable regions [32]. The United Nations (2015) specifies that the aim of target 13.1 is to strengthen community resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries [32]. In the context of Bangladesh, a nation particularly vulnerable to climate change, achieving this objective is paramount [3].

The confluence of these disasters exerts a substantial influence on the economic insecurity and social marginalization of coastal communities, a considerable proportion of whom are dependent on subsistence agriculture and fishing for their livelihoods [34]. Notwithstanding the progress that has been made in the realm of disaster preparedness and the development of early warning systems, the resilience of these communities continues to be undermined by the pervasive influences of persistent poverty, fragile infrastructure, and constrained access to financial and institutional resources [35,36,37]. The recurrence of natural disasters has been shown to result in cyclical asset depletion, thereby undermining the capacity of households to recover, adapt, and sustain their economic activities over time. In this context, economic vulnerability is not merely a consequence but also a catalyst for disaster risk. The concept of economic security, understood as the capacity of individuals and communities to maintain stable livelihoods and financial well-being in the face of shocks, is regarded as an increasingly essential component of disaster resilience [38]. The enhancement of coastal populations’ adaptive capacity can be significantly bolstered by measures that focus on fortifying economic foundations. Such measures include livelihood diversification, facilitating access to credit, implementing social protection mechanisms, and adopting inclusive development policies [39]. Nevertheless, research on the interaction between economic strategies and local DRR efforts in Bangladesh remains limited and fragmented. This study aims to address the existing knowledge gap by examining the role of economic security in fostering disaster-resilient communities in the vulnerable coastal zones of Bangladesh. The study placed particular emphasis on the assessment of the status of socio-economic conditions, the evaluation of the effectiveness of ongoing interventions, and the proposal of context-sensitive strategies that integrate economic development with the building of resilience through the formulation of policies and practices that not only reduce vulnerability but also promote long-term sustainability and community empowerment.

2. Materials and Methods

Disasters disrupt socio-economic conditions and damage fragile socio-economic infrastructures, especially in vulnerable communities experiencing different inequalities in the coastal regions of Bangladesh. Establishing economic security is a key solution for the development of communities that are resilient to disasters and sustainable in the long term. Disaster risk mitigation-focused sustainable economic security for building disaster resilient communities is initiated within the domestic sphere, among family members, and is associated with various societal levels, including neighborhoods, educational institutions, places of employment, places of worship, and public places. Therefore, this empirical research was conducted, from study area selection and data collection in the coastal region of Bangladesh to the data analysis.

2.1. Study Area Selection

The Chalna Paurashava and Kamarkhola Union of Dacope upazila were selected as the study area (Figure 1). The region is characterized by its coastal exposure, rendering it susceptible to various forms of natural hazards [40,41]. The present study focuses on two villages: Choto Chalna of Chalna Paurashava and Shibnagar of Kamarkhola Union. The upazila’s population is 2,149,599, and its literacy rate is 69.01% (

Table 1. Household, population, household size, and literacy rate, 2022 [42].

Area	Total Household	Population			Household Size (General)	Literacy Rate (7+ Years)
		Male	Female	Total
Khulna District	565,339	1,055,875	1,093,724	2,149,599	3.77	69.01
Chalna Paurashava	4313	8127	8081	16,208	3.71	83.09
Dacope Upazila	42,186	79,992	79,370	159,362	3.76	78.04

) [42]. The selected region is more susceptible due to the socio-economic status of its population. Dacope Upazila is situated in the Khulna District of Bangladesh. The area in question encompasses 991.57 square kilometers and is located between the northern latitudes of 22°24′ and 22°40′, and the eastern longitudes of 89°24′ and 89°35′ [43,44,45,46]. The administrative district of Batiaghata Upazila is delineated by the following geographical entities: the upazila to the north, the Pasur River to the south, the Rampal and Mongla Upazilas, and the Paikgachha and Koyra Upazilas to the west. The principal rivers within the geographical confines of Dacope Upazila are the Pasur, Shibsa, Manki, and Bhadra rivers [43]. The Sundarbans, located in the southern part of the upazila, are a particularly noteworthy attraction.

A decline has been observed in the amount of bank advances and deposits in the region’s rural areas (

Table 2. Bank advances and deposits by Khulna districts [42].

In Million BDT	2021–2022			2022–2023
	Urban	Rural	Total	Urban	Rural	Total
Bank Advances	160,130	33,965	194,095	187,580	18,550	206,130
Bank Deposits	171,825	40,206	212,031	193,878	32,424	226,302

). Therefore, people in this area are putting less money into local banks. It is a substantial representation of their economic strength, which in turn ensures financial and economic security. The primary sources of income were as follows: agriculture (66.07%), non-agricultural labor (4.85%), commerce (12.86%), transport and communication (1.72%), service (4.10%), construction (0.93%), religious service (0.24%), rent and remittance (0.05%), and others (9.18%) [46]. According to the most recent data, 55.02% of agricultural land is owned by landowners, while 44.98% of it is not owned. Furthermore, 42.04% of agricultural landowners reside in urban areas, while 57.06% reside in rural areas. The primary agricultural products cultivated in this region are paddy, potato, pumpkin, and various vegetables [43]. The following crops are considered extinct or nearly extinct: jute, sesame, aman, aush, and boro paddy. The principal fruits include coconut, guava, plum, sofeda, bangi, and watermelon. The following industries have been identified: fisheries, dairies, and poultry. In this upazila, shrimp cultivation is extensively practiced [46].

2.2. Qualitative and Quantitative Data

This study uses a mixed-methods approach, integrating qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques. This comprehensive strategy allows for a nuanced understanding of the socio-economic dynamics and vulnerabilities faced by coastal communities. This study was carried out using quantitative empirical approaches [47,48,49,50]. The information was gathered from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data were collected through the implementation of focus groups, semi-structured interviews with key informants, and standardized questionnaire surveys [51]. A comprehensive survey was conducted at the institutional and household levels to gather primary data from cyclone-affected households via a total of 350 in-person interviews with a standardized questionnaire administered using a random sampling method, using the following formula [51,52].

$$n=N · {\displaystyle \frac{\left[\frac{Z^2. p . (1-p)}{e^2}\right]}{\left[N-1+\frac{Z^2. p . (1-p)}{e^2}\right]}}$$

(1)

where n = sample size, N = total population size (population of vulnerable households in coastal study areas), Z = Z-score (based on confidence level 1.96 for 95% confidence), p = estimated proportion of the population (0.5), and e = margin of error (0.05).

This study employs qualitative research methods such as key informant interviews (KIIs) and focus group discussions (FGDs) to gather insights from experts and targeted community members, respectively. In-depth interviews with key informants and focus group discussions provide qualitative insights into community experiences and perceptions regarding disaster resilience and economic security. This qualitative approach is essential for understanding the nuances of the issues at hand.

2.2.1. Empirical Investigation

The survey’s objectives were to learn about the households’ pre-disaster economic risks, post-disaster strategies, and social capital for adaptation and survival. To this end, a field observation was conducted before the administration of the survey questionnaire, employing an analytical and scientific approach to assess the general condition and actual conditions of the study region (Figure 2). This study explores the potential use of sustainable development as a theoretical framework for safeguarding national economic security amid the emergence of a multipolar world. It underscores the substantial congruence between the notions of national economic security and sustainable development, underscoring the necessity for a novel economic security paradigm in the contemporary epoch. This article explores the nexus between social sustainability and security through three distinct lenses: paradox, co-production, and deconstruction. The text delves into the conceptual challenges inherent in the integration of normative theories, such as security and social sustainability, underscoring the constraints and potential of security measures in aligning with the values of social sustainability. The present document explores the establishment of global financial security within the framework of the transition to sustainable development. It addresses social, economic, managerial, and environmental challenges, intending to formulate strategies for achieving sustainable development while ensuring global financial security. These studies offer significant insights into the nexus between sustainable development and economic security, underscoring the necessity of integrating sustainability into economic security frameworks to address contemporary challenges.

2.2.2. Questionnaire Surveys

A total of 350 household questionnaire surveys (HQSs) were conducted in two villages: 175 household surveys were conducted at Choto Chalna locality, which is part of the Chalna Paurashava, and 175 household surveys were conducted at Shibnagar village, which is part of the Kamarkhola Union of Dacope Upazila in Khulna District. Structured questionnaires are administered to a representative sample of households to gather numerical data on socio-economic conditions, disaster impacts, and resilience strategies. Senior members of the households were prioritized in answering the questions. In instances where the head of the household was not available, another senior member of the family was considered the respondent.

2.2.3. Key Informant Interviews (KIIs)

This approach involves conducting in-depth qualitative interviews with a select group of individuals who have specialized knowledge or experience related to the subject matter. To obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the research region, its vulnerabilities, adaptation techniques, and household economic situations, 20 key informants were interviewed. To ensure the validity and authenticity of the research findings, KIIs were conducted with a diverse range of relevant stakeholders, including five local community members, five representatives from the Disaster Management Coordination Committee (DMCC), five government officials (GOs), three community leaders, and two officers from various non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The interviews also aim to capture the perceptions and insights of these key informants regarding current practices toward economic security to reduce vulnerability to natural disasters as well as foster a resilient community.

2.2.4. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)

A total of 12 FGDs were conducted across the six selected district headquarters, with two FGDs held in each study area, one with male participants and one with female participants [53]. Each group consisted of 15 individuals, yielding a total of 180 participants. The composition of each group included the following: four farmers, three fishermen, two day laborers, two government service holders, two NGO workers, one university-level student, and one higher secondary student. All participants were above the age of 18 and came from individual households. To ensure gender inclusivity and avoid gender bias, the FGDs were conducted with an equal representation of males and females, maintaining a 50:50 gender ratio. A structured checklist was utilized to direct discussions, encompassing subjects such as predisposed vulnerabilities, risks, livelihoods, opportunities for adaptation, and the establishment of a community that is resilient to disasters through the promotion of sustainable economic security.

2.2.5. Impact Assessment

Moreover, this research assesses the medium-run impacts of tropical cyclones on various aspects of life, including income, employment, and access to essential services like clean water and sanitation. This assessment is crucial for understanding the broader socio-economic implications of natural disasters.

2.3. Secondary Data Collection

The rationale for conducting the study was further substantiated by a meticulous examination of existing secondary data and a comprehensive review of the extant literature. The Ministry of Disaster Management and Relief (MoDMR), the Local Government Engineering Department (LGED), and the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS) provided secondary household-level data [42,54,55,56]. The MoDMR furnished historical cyclone statistics, information regarding damage and relief operations associated with cyclones, the Standing Orders on Disaster (SOD), documents on cyclone awareness and preparedness, and additional sources [57,58].

2.4. Data Analysis

The data collected through these methods were analyzed to identify households’ socio-economic status, presence of hazards and socio-economic vulnerabilities, livelihood patterns after any natural disaster, and resilience patterns in the face of cyclone-induced disaster. This analysis aimed to uncover the socio-economic impacts of cyclones and the adaptive strategies employed by the communities to ensure economic security. The present study utilizes Spearman’s rank correlation analysis to evaluate the association between disaster-resilient community status and markers of sustainable economic security. The results presented herein include the correlation coefficient and the significance level. The investigation revealed a substantial correlation between indicators of sustainable economic security and the state of catastrophe resilience. The correlation coefficient, r, ranges from −1 to 1 (

Table 3. Guidelines for interpreting correlations.

Strength of the Relationship Between Two Variables	Symbol of Interpreting the Correlations	Positive	Negative
Weak	*	0.10 to 0.29	−0.10 to −0.29
Moderate	**	0.30 to 0.49	−0.30 to −0.49
Strong	***	0.50 to 1.00	−0.50 to −1.00

). A perfect negative correlation exists between two variables when their values are −1, and a perfect positive correlation exists when their values are 1. The absence of a monotonic link between variables is evident when the correlation coefficient is zero. The significance level is the second value of interest (2-tailed). To establish a statistically significant correlation between the two variables, the alpha parameter value selected for the study must be less than or equal to the established requirement. The utilization of an alpha value of 0.05 is a customary practice in such analyses. Consequently, it can be deduced that the significance value is less than 0.001, thereby indicating a high degree of significance.

These methodological approaches collectively contribute to developing a framework for building community disaster resilience through economic security for inhabitants of study areas as well as vulnerable coastal residents of Bangladesh, providing valuable insights for policy interventions and community support initiatives.

3. Results and Discussion

This section presents the key findings from the field surveys, focus group discussions (FGDs), and key informant interviews (KIIs) conducted in the study area. The analysis examines the socio-economic conditions of the households surveyed, their exposure to natural hazards, and their coping strategies in the face of disasters. Particular emphasis is placed on identifying the determinants of vulnerability and resilience, especially in relation to economic security. The following subsections provide a detailed discussion of household income patterns, hazard exposure, disaster impacts, recovery strategies, and the role of institutional support in enhancing community resilience. By integrating qualitative insights and quantitative data, the section aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the factors that influence disaster vulnerability and the pathways to building sustainable resilience in coastal communities.

3.1. Socio-Economic Status of Households

The predominant factor contributing to households’ vulnerability was the primary source of income. Most of the population in the study area was employed in agriculture, while a small percentage engaged in small-scale business activities and utilized bicycles for transportation. The study emphasizes the prevalence of poverty in the selected region, with 22% of households reliant on agriculture for their livelihoods (Figure 3). A particularly salient phenomenon is that of childhood marriage, which leads to a significant proportion of women becoming housewives and being unable to support their families. This issue is further exacerbated by the significant unemployment rate among males, primarily due to a dearth of opportunities in the agricultural sector.

In the area under study, most individuals live below the poverty line. While some residents in this neighborhood generate income daily, others do so on a monthly basis. The monthly income of these individuals is displayed in Figure 4. The predominant proportion of respondents (53%) reported monthly incomes ranging from 5100 to 10,000 BDT (Bangladeshi Taka), which is equivalent to approximately 50–100 USD only.

3.2. Presence of Hazards in the Study Area

Approximately 22% of families in the study areas reported experiencing salinity intrusion, while 68% of households reported experiencing cyclones. A negligible proportion of respondents reported being impacted by storm surges (6%), riverbank erosion (1%), or flooding, primarily in rivers (2%) (Figure 5). On average, three cyclones have impacted these locations annually over the past five years. While most respondents reside in proximity to bodies of water, such as rivers and the sea, it is noteworthy that the incidence of injuries or fatalities resulting from natural disasters has been minimal in all survey locations. A substantial proportion of respondents, amounting to approximately 96%, perceived a recent escalation in the frequency and severity of natural hazards. Furthermore, these respondents indicated an augmented sense of vulnerability to these hazards, a perception that is growing.

3.3. Improvement of Livelihood Immediately After Disaster

The respondents in the survey have been shown to employ a variety of strategies for the immediate improvement of their livelihoods in the aftermath of a disaster. A considerable segment of the population in the study area resides below the poverty line. Their limited financial resources hinder the rapid recovery from external shocks and crises, including calamities and disasters. This limits their capacity to invest in preventive mechanisms. Most households (74%) have sought to enhance their livelihoods following disasters by obtaining loans, while 26% have utilized their savings.

3.4. Impact of Cyclone and Cyclone-Induced Storm Surge

Dacope, being a coastal region, is susceptible to natural disasters that have a profound impact on the local population. As demonstrated in Figure 5, the predominant threat is cyclone-induced disasters. Notwithstanding the study’s findings that, after the 2009 Aila cyclone, no other devastating cyclones have made landfall in this region, an average of one cyclone of low intensity has occurred annually. These disasters recur with a high degree of probability, accompanied by a significant risk. Consequently, the local population has been repeatedly subjected to the same disasters. In certain instances, the aftermath of a prior disaster is mitigated, yet another disaster materializes and exerts its influence on the affected populace. These subsequent events can have a detrimental impact on individuals’ lives and properties, exacerbating their vulnerability. However, in the designated survey areas, the incidence of injury or fatality due to natural disasters has been minimal, despite the proximity of most respondents to bodies of water, such as rivers and the sea. Over the past decade, the mortality rate from natural disasters in the study area has been almost negligible, with only a small number of people injured in these disasters. The researcher found that the impact of cyclones on earning sources is vast. The survey results indicate that the loss of earnings experienced by respondents following a cyclone can range from 1000 to 5000 BDT, equivalent to 10–50 USD (76%), for those residing in affected communities, and from 6000 to 10,000 BDT, equivalent to approximately 60–100 USD (24%), for those residing in other communities.

Agriculture, the primary source of income for the local population, is one of the most vulnerable industries in the study area. A minor alteration in agricultural practices, caused by calamity, has the potential to significantly impact the community’s livelihood. The respondents’ crops were subject to the following types of damage (Figure 6): 38 percent of the respondents experienced losses ranging from 1000 to 10,000 BDT (approximately 10–100 USD), 40 percent experienced losses ranging from 11,000 to 20,000 BDT (110–200 USD), 6 percent experienced losses ranging from 21,000 to 30,000 BDT (200–300 USD), 12 percent experienced losses ranging from 31,000 to 40,000 BDT (300–400 USD), and 3 percent experienced losses ranging from 41,000 to 50,000 BDT (400–500 USD).

3.5. Discussion on Economic Security to Build Disaster Resilience

The field study revealed that most of the population in the study area was living below the poverty line. The population under study exhibited a variety of income generation patterns, with some individuals deriving their income daily and others doing so monthly. The study highlighted the economic challenges faced by the impoverished population of the selected region, predominantly characterized by livelihoods derived from agriculture, temporary labor, and the operation of rickshaws or vans. The income derived from these activities was found to be marginal and frequently variable. Consequently, the amount and sources of income can serve as indicators of the population’s capacity to afford physical mitigation measures and their ability to recover from disasters. Individuals with substantial earnings can save, construct more robust dwellings through a building-back-better approach, and, for disaster resilience, procure insurance to mitigate the impact of natural disasters (Figure 7). However, the preceding section’s analysis and field study demonstrate that the inhabitants of this area face economic challenges and are vulnerable to financial instability, vulnerable dwellings, and overall vulnerabilities to disasters (Figure 7). The findings from FGDs and KIIs indicate that when community members receive training and logistical support from governmental entities, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and social organizations, they can generate income by applying their recently acquired skills. The group may opt to allocate responsibilities to subgroups, with each subgroup assuming specific tasks such as raw material collection or marketing. The group can contribute to the production of the product. The beneficiaries who receive training in these skills can earn money throughout the year, including during the monsoon season, which was previously a period when no sources of income were available.

The study under consideration presents a statistical analysis of various disaster resiliency and economic sustainability indicators (

Table 4. Statistical group comparisons and Spearman’s correlations between the status of disaster-resilient community and sustainable economic security indicators.

	Disaster-Resilient Community Status
	Indicators ↓	Status →	Adaptation Capacity	Disaster Readiness/ Preparedness	Disaster Response	Disaster Recovery	Disaster Risk Reduction/ Mitigation	Dependency on Relief and Rehabilitation	Dependency on Loans
Sustainable Economic Security Indicators	Availability of employment	Correlation Coefficient	0.216 *	0.052	0.587 ***	0.469 **	0.182 *	−0.140 *	−0.087
		Sig. (2-tailed)	0.000	0.333	0.000	0.000	0.001	0.009	0.105
	Governmental assistance and support	Correlation Coefficient	0.303 **	0.009	0.161 *	0.202 *	0.640 ***	−0.005	−0.228 *
		Sig. (2-tailed)	0.000	0.868	0.002	0.000	0.001	0.932	0.000
	Sustainable agricultural practices	Correlation Coefficient	0.704 ***	0.427 **	0.370 **	0.560 ***	0.106 *	−0.013	−0.049
		Sig. (2-tailed)	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.047	0.808	0.363
	Education and training	Correlation Coefficient	0.033	0.519 ***	0.305 **	0.285 *	0.413 **	−0.121 *	−0.362 **
		Sig. (2-tailed)	0.539	0.001	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.024	0.000
	Access to NGOs, banks, and insurance agencies	Correlation Coefficient	0.156 *	0.011	0.249 *	0.191 *	0.083	0.082	0.023
		Sig. (2-tailed)	0.003	0.840	0.000	0.000	0.121	0.122	0.674
	Housing construction and protection	Correlation Coefficient	0.665 ***	0.206 *	−0.004	−0.098	0.425 **	0.043	−0.475 **
		Sig. (2-tailed)	0.001	0.000	0.945	0.068	0.000	0.422	0.000
	Monthly income and savings	Correlation Coefficient	0.098	0.193 *	−0.056	−0.249 *	0.086	−0.403 **	−0.542 ***
		Sig. (2-tailed)	0.066	0.000	0.294	0.000	0.109	0.000	0.000

* Weak (0.10–0.29), ** moderate (0.30–0.49), and *** strong correlation (0.50–1.00). N = 350 and (−) negative correlation.

). These indicators include correlation coefficients and significance levels for different variables, such as community participation, recovery time, and government aid. The data, based on a sample size of 350, highlights significant relationships among these indicators, providing insights into their interdependencies and impacts on community resilience and economic stability. For instance, a moderate association exists between employment availability and disaster recovery (ρ = 0.469, p < 0.001). Furthermore, a high positive correlation has been demonstrated with disaster response (ρ = 0.587, p < 0.001). These findings suggest that employment opportunities are conducive to enhanced short-term and long-term disaster response. Moreover, environmentally sound farming practices have been demonstrated to foster community-level resilience. This assertion is substantiated by the robust and consistent positive correlations exhibited by sustainable agricultural practices across multiple resilience indicators, particularly adaptation capacity (ρ = 0.704, p < 0.001), disaster recovery (ρ = 0.560, p < 0.001), and preparedness (ρ = 0.427, p < 0.001). Saline-, drought-, and flood-resistant cultivars capable of thriving and producing substantial quantities during periods of crisis are components of this sustainable agricultural framework. Furthermore, government support and aid have been shown to be positively associated with disaster risk reduction and mitigation (ρ = 0.640, p < 0.001) and adaptation ability (ρ = 0.303, p < 0.001). These findings underscore the pivotal role of institutional aid in fostering resilience. In consideration of the impact on educational initiatives, training programs, and educational institutions, a substantial positive correlation has been identified between disaster risk reduction (ρ = 0.413, p < 0.001) and the implementation of preparatory measures (ρ = 0.519, p < 0.001). These findings underscore the significance of capacity-building initiatives in the context of proactive disaster risk management strategies. The degree to which a community can demonstrate robustness is directly proportional to the correlation between the educational attainment of its members and its collective knowledge base. Furthermore, housing protection and construction have been demonstrated to exhibit a robust negative correlation with loan dependency (ρ = −0.475, p < 0.001) and a significant positive correlation with adaptation capacity (ρ = 0.665, p < 0.001). These findings suggest that these factors contribute to enhancing resilience and reducing vulnerability (Table 4).

Moreover, individuals with limited financial means and those confronted with adversity are compelled to seek loans to reconstruct their damaged homes in the aftermath of disasters. However, the severity of the strain is mitigated to a considerable extent if the dwellings possess sufficient structural integrity to withstand any potential calamity. Furthermore, a positive correlation was identified between disaster response and access to NGOs, banks, and insurance agencies (ρ = 0.249, p < 0.001). A similar correlation was observed for disaster recovery and access to NGOs, banks, and insurance agencies (ρ = 0.191, p < 0.001). In contrast, certain indicators demonstrate a substantial inverse relationship. For instance, a negative correlation has been demonstrated between savings and monthly income on the one hand, and loans and relief on the other hand (ρ = −0.542, p < 0.001; ρ = −0.403, p < 0.001, respectively). These findings suggest that financial stability may reduce the need for external post-disaster assistance. In addition, an inverse correlation is observed between education and training and loan dependence (ρ = −0.362, p < 0.001), thereby substantiating the long-term benefits of knowledge for the economy. Consequently, the negative correlations suggest that improved economic conditions reduce vulnerability and post-disaster reliance. Conversely, the positive correlations indicate that enhancing economic factors enhances community resilience (Table 4).

This study has shown that improving access to adequate financial services is a means of reducing vulnerability. The rationale underlying this assertion is that when individuals possess a secure economic foundation, they exhibit heightened engagement in social programs, community governance, and other facets associated with community development. This heightened engagement has been shown to reduce vulnerability and foster resilience. The present study has demonstrated that enhancing access to adequate financial services constitutes a means of mitigating vulnerability. The rationale underlying this assertion is that when individuals possess a secure economic foundation, they exhibit heightened engagement in social programs, community governance, and other facets associated with community development. This heightened engagement has been demonstrated to reduce vulnerability and foster resilience. To establish disaster resilience models through the means of economic security, a series of actions must be taken. These actions encompass the diversification of agricultural production systems, the cultivation of alternative sources of income, the augmentation of cash-for-work programs, and food-for-work initiatives. Other measures that may be considered include technical training, the empowerment of women, and the promotion of financial savings. The subsequent figure delineates a potential pathway for enhancing disaster resilience (Figure 8).

3.6. A Conceptual Framework for Building a Disaster-Resilient Community Through a Sustainable Economic Security

The subsequent section presents a conceptual framework for sustainable economic security through household adaptation mechanisms that build a disaster-resilient community. The objective of this conceptual framework is to facilitate a comprehensive understanding of how socio-economic security can strengthen a resilient community in the face of natural disasters (Figure 9). The framework is composed of three overarching components: economic security, household adaptation, and resilient community. To reduce vulnerabilities induced by disaster risk drivers, the adaptation of households is an important factor. A variety of adaptive mechanisms have been demonstrated to be directly linked with community resilience. These mechanisms encompass a range of financial strategies, including loans from banking institutions, NGOs, and cooperative associations, as well as the utilization of borrowed funds from relatives or neighbors. Moreover, access to disaster warning information and reliance on external assistance are identified as key factors. These mechanisms are believed to be directly or indirectly associated with economic security. Evidence suggests that the enhancement of economic security within a household can positively contribute to the cultivation of greater resilience within the community.

The banking sector plays a pivotal role in fostering economic security. Numerous NGOs have incorporated microfinance initiatives into their operations. Local communities can readily access these programs by establishing communication with the respective organizations. These initiatives have the potential to enhance employment opportunities, diversify employment options, and strengthen the economic security of individuals. In conclusion, it is imperative to emphasize that enhancing the economic security of coastal communities and cultivating household adaptation mechanisms are pivotal in reducing their vulnerability to disaster risk. This, in turn, fosters the development of a resilient community. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2022) has observed that poverty and a lack of economic diversification function as significant impediments to effective climate adaptation [59]. Communities that possess stable livelihoods, diversified income streams, and access to credit and savings mechanisms have been shown to possess a greater capacity to recover from climate-induced shocks [60]. Consequently, enhancing economic security, particularly in marginalized or hazard-prone regions, is imperative for the realization of the objectives of SDGs 11 and 13 [28,61].

Research by Hallegatte et al. (2016) lends further support to this perspective, underscoring the inherent connection between climate resilience and economic inclusion [60]. In addition, literature from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Bangladesh highlights the necessity of community-driven, localized, and economically inclusive resilience-building initiatives in coastal regions [62]. Prior studies have critically examined the limitations of traditional, top-down resilience strategies, which often fail to address the complex, place-specific socio-economic dynamics that shape community vulnerability [62,63,64,65,66]. Meanwhile, this study advances the discourse by proposing a conceptual framework that explicitly links economic security with disaster resilience, emphasizing the influence of local economic systems, informal livelihoods, and community coping mechanisms on resilience outcomes (Figure 9). The proposed framework is grounded in community-based data and practices collected from vulnerable coastal regions of Bangladesh, allowing it to reflect the lived experiences and specific challenges faced by at-risk populations. As such, it offers a nuanced and contextualized perspective that captures the diversity of local realities, and recognizes the interplay between social and economic factors in shaping resilience. This grounded approach aligns with contemporary policy recommendations that emphasize participatory climate governance and localized economic planning, ensuring that resilience strategies are both inclusive and contextually relevant.

4. Conclusions

This study has explored how economic security and disaster resilience are connected in vulnerable coastal communities of Bangladesh. The findings show that poverty, limited job opportunities, and a lack of access to financial services make households more likely to be affected by natural disasters like cyclones, storm surges, and saltwater intrusion. Most people make money from farming, but weather changes can hurt farmers a lot. They might lose money and crops. The precarious nature of income, further compounded by the limitations in available employment opportunities, serves to exacerbate the situation. Many people need loans or small savings to get back on their feet after a disaster, showing that the economy doesn’t offer much support. Despite these challenges, the study shows that communities can become stronger by getting the right support from the responsible authorities. Communities that have access to institutional support, technical training, and microfinance opportunities show improved abilities to adapt. The data also show that when people have enough money, they are more likely to take part in community programs and take steps to prevent problems, which makes them less likely to be vulnerable. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the government and NGOs to consider the current economic situation and formulate a more systematic plan of action, with a greater emphasis on the implementation of both immediate and long-term programs.

The study also suggests a way of thinking about how economic security, how families adapt, and how communities bounce back from disasters can work together to reduce disaster risks over time. This conceptual framework highlights the importance of having multiple sources of income, access to credit and savings, community training, and financial services that include everyone. Government agencies, NGOs, financial institutions, community groups, and development partners all have important roles to play in making coastal areas more resilient to disasters. This includes the formulation of local economic plans, the provision of assistance to vulnerable groups such as women and young people, and the enhancement of financial services accessibility. It also includes supporting local organizations and focusing on long-term economic support instead of short-term aid. When communities collaborate, they exhibit a greater capacity to recover from disasters and emerge more resilient. Future research should use larger and more diverse samples to ensure findings apply to many people. Researchers should also use longitudinal methods to track the long-term effects of interventions and explore how gender influences vulnerability and economic security. Using different research methods will help reduce bias and better capture the complex social and economic realities of affected communities. This will help inform better ways to make our communities stronger.