Next Article in Journal
Ochrolechia raynori, a New Lichen Species from the Southern Rocky Mountains (Colorado, USA) and Key to Asexually Reproducing Ochrolechia in Western North America
Previous Article in Journal
Machine Learning-Based Analysis of Community Perceptions on Coastal Forest Ecosystem Services, Restoration Willingness and Their Determinants in Bangladesh
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Wild
Volume 2
Issue 3
10.3390/wild2030027
wild-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Amblyomma mixtum (Acari: Ixodidae) Infestation in Humans in the Flooded Savanna Region of Colombia

by
Arlex Rodríguez-Durán
1,2,3,*,
Diana Peña-Navarro
3,
Vinícius Andrade-Silva
2,
Luís Fernando Parizi
2,4,
Itabajara da Silva Vaz Junior
2,4,5 and
Jesús Alfredo Cortés-Vecino
3
1
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Veterinária, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Bento Gonçalves, 9090, Porto Alegre 91540-000, RS, Brazil
2
Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Porto Alegre 91501-970, RS, Brazil
3
Grupo de Investigación Parasitología Veterinaria, Laboratorio de Parasitología Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional de Colombia (UNAL), Carrera 30 No 45-03, Bogotá 110111, Colombia
4
Faculdade de Veterinária, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Bento Gonçalves, 9090, Porto Alegre 91540-000, RS, Brazil
5
Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular (INCT-EM), Rio de Janeiro 21941-853, RJ, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Wild 2025, 2(3), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/wild2030027
Submission received: 24 May 2025 / Revised: 3 July 2025 / Accepted: 7 July 2025 / Published: 14 July 2025
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Simple Summary

Ticks are small animals related to spiders that feed on the blood of animals and humans. They are important in human health because they can transmit pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. This study was conducted in the flooded savanna region of Colombia, where cases of tick infestations in humans were reported. Ticks were also collected from domestic and wild animals. A total of 22 ticks were found on six individuals (five men and one woman), ranging in age from 9 to 60 years. Meanwhile, in animals, 13 ticks were collected. It was confirmed that the tick species infesting humans and animals was Amblyomma mixtum. Two of the six infested people experienced skin reactions, including redness, itching, small lesions, and swelling at the tick bite site. This is the first study in Colombia to provide a detailed description of the cutaneous manifestations caused by Amblyomma mixtum in humans. These findings are important in improving our understanding of the health risks associated with tick exposure. They also offer valuable information in the development of future surveillance and prevention programs, particularly in rural areas where contact with animals and natural habitats is more common.

Abstract

Ticks are arthropods responsible for transmitting microorganisms important to wild, domestic, and human animals. In ecosystems where they are distributed, interactions between hosts are a constant risk. This study analyzed voluntary case reports of tick infestations in humans and tick collections from wild and domestic animals in six different locations in the flooded savanna region of the Colombian Orinoquia. Classical and molecular taxonomy were used to identify tick species. Individuals infested with ticks were monitored for clinical manifestations related to tick bites. A total of 22 ticks were found infesting five men and one woman, aged between 9 and 60 years. Both classical and molecular taxonomy confirmed that 100% of the ticks infesting humans and animals were Amblyomma mixtum. Two of the six individuals reported primary and secondary skin reactions during and after the tick bite, including mild-to-severe inflammatory reactions, pruritus, and erythematous papules that persisted up to 72 h. This study provides, for the first time, compiled information on clinical skin manifestations caused by A. mixtum in humans in the flooded savanna region and in Colombia as a whole. These findings serve as a theoretical basis for developing surveillance programs targeting infestations caused by this arthropod.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Due to their hematophagous feeding behavior on a wide range of host species, immunomodulatory salivary properties, and rapid adaptability to climatic changes, among other biological factors, ticks are arthropods of great importance in animal and human health [1,2,3,4]. They are also efficient vectors for a wide variety of pathogens [5,6]. Additionally, they cause a huge economic impact on livestock production systems in the regions where they are present [7,8].
Among the tick genera belonging to the Ixodidae family, the genus Amblyomma represents an important threat to public health in their distribution areas due to their life cycle, species diversity, global distribution, broad host range, and ability to transmit pathogens [9,10]. In the last decade, this genus has attracted increasing interest in human health, as a rising number of human infestation cases have been reported, especially in the subtropical regions [11,12].
In the Americas, Amblyomma mixtum is widely distributed, from southern Texas, USA, to western Ecuador [13,14]. It has been reported in both dry and humid regions of Mesoamerica, including the Mesoamerican Seasonal Highlands [13]. This tick species infests a variety of hosts, primarily cattle and equines, but it can also infest humans and birds [15,16]. Moreover, A. mixtum has been described as an important vector of zoonotic pathogens such as Anaplasma marginale, the causative agent of bovine anaplasmosis, and Rickettsia rickettsii, the etiological agent behind Rocky Mountain spotted fever [15,17,18,19,20]. It has also been associated with other pathogens, including Rickettsia amblyommatis and Rickettsia typhi [15,17,18,19,20].
In Colombia, Amblyomma spp. have been described as having a potential habitat distribution covering up to 51% of the country [21]. Factors like the presence of diverse hosts (including humans) and tropical climatic seasonality may increase infestation risk, as well as human infections by pathogens transmitted by this vector [22,23,24]. This study aimed to document tick infestations in humans, domestic animals, and wild animals in the flooded savanna region of the Arauca department, Colombia. Our findings highlight the predominance of A. mixtum in this ecosystem and provide the first description of associated cutaneous clinical manifestations in humans from this region.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

For this study, the municipality of Arauca, in the department of Arauca, Colombia, was selected because previous studies had reported tick infestations in animals, especially farm animals, suggesting the possibility of also recording infestations in humans caused by this arthropod [25,26,27]. Arauca is located in the lowlands of the western Orinoco River basin, Colombia [28]. The region’s topography is predominantly flat, with open areas and wetlands covered with vegetation during the rainy season [29]. The climate is characterized by two distinct seasons: a dry season (typically from December to March) and a rainy season (from April to November), with an average annual rainfall of 1477 mm, relative humidity of 90%, an elevation of 120 m above sea level, and a temperature range reaching up to 30.9 °C [30].
The areas where people reported infestations and the subsequent sampling of wild and domestic animals were the following: 1. Mata de Gallina (07°06′63.32″ N; 070°73′20.58″ W), 2. Saya (06°92′31.93″ N; 070°71′76.16″ W), 3. Arrecifes (06°99′15.89″ N; 070°64′37.56″ W), 4. Natural Reserve: Cinaruco National Integrated Management District (DNMI Cinaruco) [31] DNMI Cinaruco 1 (06°40′46.88″ N; 070°7′9.36″ W), 5. DNMI Cinaruco 2 (06°74′47.80″ N; 069°97′ 14.89″ W), and 6. Caño Colorado (06°67′41.57″ N; 071°06′75.51″ W) (Figure 1).

2.2. Tick Collection and Preservation

Ticks in larval, nymphal, or adult stages were collected from human hosts who voluntarily reported accidental infestations to the research group and freely agreed to participate in the study. All participants were treated in accordance with the ethical principles and procedures established by the Declaration of Helsinki. To determine whether the tick species infesting humans were the same as those infesting animals or present in non-parasitic stages on vegetation (see Table 1), sampling was conducted on the farms or in the homes of infested individuals. Ticks were collected at these sites in their larval, nymphal, or adult stages (Figure 2). The samples were preserved in 95% ethanol for classical and molecular taxonomy analysis. Specimens were identified based on their life stage, host type, and collection location.
The sample collection and the monitoring of potential clinical manifestations associated with tick infestation in humans were performed by a physician experienced in arthropod-related cases. Collection from animals and vegetation was conducted by veterinarians.

2.3. Taxonomic and Molecular Identification

2.3.1. Classical Taxonomic Identification

The external morphological characteristics of the collected ticks were examined using an SZ61 binocular stereomicroscope (Olympus, Waltham, MA, USA) at magnifications of up to 100×, following the taxonomic keys and morphological descriptions provided by Strickland et al. [32], Barros-Battesti et al. [33,34], Kleinjan and Lane [35], Estrada-Peña [36], and Nava et al. [37].

2.3.2. Molecular Taxonomy: DNA Extraction

Genetic analysis was used to classify tick species. DNA was extracted from 12 ticks obtained from animals (n = 2), plants (n = 2), and humans (n = 8). For the extraction of nucleic acids, the reagent TRIzol® LS (Invitrogen, Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Waltham, MA, USA) was used, based on the volumes and procedural steps indicated in the manufacturer’s protocol.
The extracted DNA was analyzed by PCR protocols, using the enzyme Taq DNA polymerase (Ludwing Biotec®, Alvorada, RS, Brazil) and primers 5′-CCG GTC TGA ACT CAG ATC AAG T-3′ and 5′-GCT CAA TGA TTT TTT AAA TTG CTG-3′, directed to a 368 bp fragment of the 16S rDNA gene [38], and primers 5′-TAA ACT TCA GGG TGA CCA AAA AAT CA-3′ and 5′-GGT CAA CAA ATC ATA AAG ATA TTG G-3′, directed to a 506 bp fragment of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene (cox1) [39]. The initial denaturation temperature was 94 °C for 5 min, followed by 35 cycles of 94 °C for 30 s, 60 °C for 30 s, and 72 °C for 1:30 min. The final extension was at 72 °C for 5 min.

2.3.3. Molecular Taxonomy: Sequencing and Phylogenetic Analyses

The sequences were trimmed using SeqMan version 5.0 (DNASTAR, Madison, WI, US) to remove poor-quality sequence reads. Then, the trimmed sequences were subjected to BLASTn and used to construct the phylogenetic trees. Tick species previously described in Colombia were used to compare sequences. For the 16S rDNA gene, sequences from Amblyomma triste (OK576643 and OK576644), Amblyomma maculatum (OK576645 and OK576646), and A. mixtum (MF353121) were used. For the cox1 gene, the sequences of A. triste (OK576711 and OK576709), A. maculatum (OK576638 and OK576639), and A. mixtum (KY595136) were used, while the species Argas persicus (MK571448) was used as an outgroup of the genus Amblyomma. The sequences were aligned using ClustalW, included in the MEGA 11 program [40].
Phylogenetic trees for the tick 16S rDNA and mitochondrial cox1 sequences were constructed separately through maximum likelihood (ML) using the Kimura 2-parameter distance model and 1000 bootstrap replicates in MEGA 11. Each gene alignment included various GenBank sequences, with their accession number in parentheses in the trees.

2.4. Monitoring of Clinical Manifestations in Humans

Individual monitoring was conducted via telephone and field visits for up to five days to detect possible clinical manifestations related to tick bites, such as the following: (i) Skin lesions: red spots, swelling, and itching at the bite site, redness with or without pain, or the formation of a papule or small scab in the area. (ii) Mild allergic reactions: intense itching or swelling around the bite. (iii) Allergic reactions: generalized hives or difficulty breathing [41,42,43].

3. Results

A total of 22 ticks were collected infesting six humans, including 5 adults (2 males and 3 females), 6 nymphs, and 11 larvae. All ticks collected were A. mixtum (Figure 3 and Supplementary Video S1). From animals, 13 ticks were collected, consisting of 11 adults (2 males and 9 females) and 2 nymphs. As with humans, the identified species was A. mixtum.
In the non-parasitic phase (from vegetation), 208 ticks were identified, consisting of 20 adults (6 males and 14 females), 10 nymphs, and 178 larvae. Ticks were identified as A. mixtum (38%) and Amblyomma spp. (62%). The highest tick frequency was recorded during the dry season, with 65% of the specimens collected (n = 158), compared to the rainy season, which accounted for 35% of the records (n = 85).
The six human cases infested with A. mixtum comprised five men and one woman, aged 9 to 60. All affected individuals were farm residents engaged in agricultural work, primarily livestock farming (Table 1). They reported acquiring infestations during routine work activities or while moving between dwellings. The anatomical distribution of A. mixtum attachments in humans varied, with ticks attaching to different regions of the body. For example, larvae were most frequently observed on the lower extremities of infested individuals (Figure 4), while nymphs were primarily found in the central body region. Adult ticks predominantly attached to the torso and upper extremities (Table 1).
Clinical monitoring for skin lesions or allergic reactions was only possible in two cases. Follow-up was lost for three individuals, including contact with their families, and one person could not be reached due to their remote location. Of the two individuals who received clinical follow-up, differences were observed in their skin manifestations, including both primary and secondary reactions during and after the tick bite (Figure 5a,b). The first case presented only primary skin manifestations, a mild local inflammation at the tick bite, which persisted for 36 h (Figure 5b). In contrast, the second case presented both primary and secondary reactions, an immediate severe inflammatory response with intense itching, firm papules, and later erythematous pustule-like lesions compatible with bacterial infection lasting 72 h post-bite (Figure 5c).
Phylogenetic analysis of 16S rDNA (368 bp) and cox1 (506 bp) confirmed the identity as A. mixtum, the ticks identified in humans, with 100% identity to GenBank sequences for both genes. The phylogenetic tree of the 16S rDNA gene sequence of A. mixtum (accession number: PV528768) from the present study clustered with A. mixtum sequences from Colombia-Arauca ticks (Figure 6a). Likewise, the cox1 gene sequence of A. mixtum (accession number: PV528763) from the present study formed a clade with A. mixtum sequences from Colombia-Arauca ticks (Figure 6b).

4. Discussion

Other species of ticks from the genus Amblyomma (Amblyomma dissimile, Amblyomma longirostre, and Amblyomma nodosum) have been identified in the flooded savanna region of the Orinoquia of Colombia [44,45]. However, it is noteworthy that only the species A. mixtum was identified in the animals and humans studied. This could be due to the fact that this ixodid has a heteroxene life cycle (with more than two hosts) [46]. During the larvae and nymph stages, it can infest a wide range of hosts, with a preference for mammals, including humans [14]. However, recently, a higher frequency of infestation in human beings as hosts has been reported. For example, in Mexico, a similar case of A. mixtum infestation in humans was reported, involving a total of 15 ticks infesting individual people [15,47]. Similarly, in Honduras, an A. mixtum infestation was described in five people [48]. Meanwhile, in Germany, A. mixtum infestation was reported in a person returning from a holiday trip to Cuba [49].
Two of the six infested individuals presented primary and secondary skin lesions generated by the bite of A. mixtum. Primary skin lesions could have been generated by the permanence of the mouthparts, toxicity, anticoagulant substances found in saliva, or inflammation at ticks’ feeding time [50,51]. Regarding the secondary manifestation on the skin observed in the second person studied, perhaps the presence of the pustules could be due to a bacterial infection caused by the same person when controlling the itching, having fingers or nails infected by some bacterial species [41]. However, specific diagnostic laboratory studies would be required to verify these hypotheses.
The homes where the infested individuals lived or worked represent a high-risk factor, as they are located in a region of Colombia whose environmental conditions, such as relative humidity and temperature, can favor the development of A. mixtum [18,21]. This observation is supported by our findings, which showed the highest frequency of ticks during the dry season. Additionally, the presence of a variety of domestic and wild animals may facilitate the establishment and persistence of this tick species in the region [18,21,31].
Furthermore, it is likely that invasions into habitats where human settlements were not previously found have displaced wild animals as intermediate hosts [52,53], making the human population more frequently selected by A. mixtum as hosts. This fact has not only been observed for ticks but also for the spatial distribution and abundance of different pathogens in the country [54], which has generated an increase in the incidence of diseases caused by tick-borne pathogens, especially Rickettsia spp. [2,55].
Although our results expand and compile, for the first time, the information on A. mixtum infestation in humans and the associated cutaneous clinical manifestations, the sample size was small, with only six individuals analyzed, and clinical monitoring was possible in just two cases. This limitation restricts the analysis to a localized population and reduces the representativeness of the data, which limits a comprehensive understanding of the clinical and epidemiological impact of A. mixtum on humans in this region of Colombia.

5. Conclusions

Our study expands and compiles for the first time information on the follow-up of cutaneous clinical manifestations associated with A. mixtum infesting humans in the flooded savanna region and in Colombia in general. These results could be useful in surveillance programs on tick infestations in Colombia, as well as providing a theoretical reference regarding the clinical skin manifestations caused by this arthropod in humans. In addition, we provide new information on the identification and distribution of this tick species in the Colombian Orinoquia, taking into account the importance of A. mixtum as a reservoir of pathogens, which in the future could be a sanitary risk factor for the infection of pathogens in humans and animals that inhabit the rural areas of this part of the country.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/wild2030027/s1. Video S1: YouTube video: Record of non-parasitic Amblyomma mixtum in vegetation near the homes of people infested by this arthropod in the flooded savanna region of Colombia: https://youtu.be/RoX8ZUZkZvw (accessed on 22 April 2025).

Author Contributions

A.R.-D.: Writing—review and editing, Writing—original draft, Methodology, investigation, formal analysis, conceptualization, resources. D.P.-N.: Writing—review and editing, Writing—original draft, methodology, formal analysis. V.A.-S.: Writing—review and editing, Writing—original draft, methodology, formal analysis. L.F.P.: Writing—review and editing, Writing—original draft, methodology, formal analysis. I.d.S.V.J.: Writing—review and editing, Writing—original draft, methodology, formal analysis, supervision, resources, J.A.C.-V.: Writing—review and editing, Writing—original draft, methodology, formal analysis, supervision, resources. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico do Brasil (CNPq: grant no. 465678/2014-9), Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES: grant no. 88881.068421/2014-01), Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ: grant no. E-26/210.012/2018; SEI-260003/001743/2023), and Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación de Colombia (MINCIENCIAS: grant no. 885/2020). We thank them for supporting this study.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The collection of ticks from animals and vegetation was approved by the Bioethics Committee FMVZ-UNAL (Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y de Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, UNAL) CB-088-2015.

Informed Consent Statement

All human participants involved in this study were treated in accordance with the ethical principles and procedures set forth in the Declaration of Helsinki. Voluntary participation was ensured through the signing of an Informed Consent Form.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful for the cooperation and information provided by each person who reported tick infestations. They would also like to thank cattle rancher Cristian Jose Estepa Cedeño for coordinating the field tick collection efforts.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
BLASTnBasic Local Alignment Search Tool for nucleotides
PCRPolymerase Chain Reaction

References

  1. Jongejan, F.; Uilenberg, G. The Global Importance of Ticks. Parasitology 2004, 129, 3–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Karesh, W.; Dobson, A.; Lloyd-Smith, J.; Lubroth, J.; Dixon, M.; Bennett, M.; Aldrich, S.; Harrington, T.; Formenty, P.; Loh, E.; et al. Ecology of Zoonoses: Natural and Unnatural Histories. Lancet 2012, 380, 1936–1945. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Kotál, J.; Langhansová, H.; Lieskovská, J.; Andersen, A.; Francischetti, I.; Chavakis, T.; Kopecký, J.; Pedra, J.; Kotsyfakis, M.; Chmelař, J. Modulation of Host Immunity by Tick Saliva. J. Proteom. 2015, 128, 58–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Sajid, M.; Kausar, A.; Iqbal, A.; Abbas, H.; Iqbal, Z.; Jones, M. An Insight into the Ecobiology, Vector Significance and Control of Hyalomma Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae): A Review. Acta Trop. 2018, 187, 229–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Léger, E.; Vourc’h, G.; Vial, L.; Chevillon, C.; McCoy, K. Changing Distributions of Ticks: Causes and Consequences. Exp. Appl. Acarol. 2013, 59, 219–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. de la Fuente, J.; Antunes, S.; Bonnet, S.; Cabezas-Cruz, A.; Domingos, A.; Estrada-Peña, A.; Johnson, N.; Kocan, K.; Mansfield, K.; Nijhof, A.; et al. Tick-Pathogen Interactions and Vector Competence: Identification of Molecular Drivers for Tick-Borne Diseases. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2017, 7, 114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Grisi, L.; Leite, R.; De Souza Martins, J.; De Barros, A.; Andreotti, R.; Cançado, P.; De León, A.; Pereira, J.; Villela, H. Reassessment of the Potential Economic Impact of Cattle Parasites in Brazil. Rev. Bras. Parasitol. Vet. 2014, 23, 150–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Singh, K.; Kumar, S.; Sharma, A.; Jacob, S.; RamVerma, M.; Singh, N.; Shakya, M.; Sankar, M.; Ghosh, S. Economic Impact of Predominant Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases on Indian Dairy Production Systems. Exp. Parasitol. 2022, 243, 108408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Valente, V.; Silva, P.; Arzua, M.; Barros-Battesti, D.; Martins, T.; Silva, A.; Vieira, T.; Labruna, M.; Vieira, F. Records of Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) on Humans and Distribution of Spotted-Fever Cases and Its Tick Vectors in Paraná State, Southern Brazil. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 2020, 11, 101510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Mans, B. Paradigms in Tick Evolution. Trends Parasitol. 2023, 39, 475–486. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Siobhon, L.; Lettoof, D.; Oskam, C. First Record of the Stump-Tailed Lizard Tick, Amblyomma albolimbatum (Ixodida, Ixodidae) Parasitising a Human. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 2022, 13, 101873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Suzin, A.; da Silva, M.X.; Tognolli, M.; Vogliotti, A.; Adami, S.; Duarte, M.; Nunes, P.; Szabó, P. Ticks on Humans in an Atlantic Rainforest Preserved Ecosystem in Brazil: Species, Life Stages, Attachment Sites, and Temporal Pattern of Infestation. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 2022, 13, 101862. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Estrada-Peña, A.; Tarragona, E.; Vesco, U.; Meneghi, D.; Mastropaolo, M.; Mangold, A.; Guglielmone, A.; Nava, S. Divergent Environmental Preferences and Areas of Sympatry of Tick Species in the Amblyomma cajennense Complex (Ixodidae). Int. J. Parasitol. 2014, 44, 1081–1089. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Nava, S.; Beati, L.; Labruna, M.; Cáceres, A.; Mangold, A.; Guglielmone, A. Reassessment of the Taxonomic Status of Amblyomma cajennense (Fabricius, 1787) with the Description of Three New Species, Amblyomma tonelliae n. sp., Amblyomma interandinum n. sp. and Amblyomma patinoi n. sp., and Reinstatement of Amblyomma mixtum Koch, 1844, and Amblyomma sculptum Berlese, 1888 (Ixodida: Ixodidae). Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 2014, 5, 252–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Rodríguez-Vivas, R.; Apanaskevich, D.; Ojeda-Chi, M.; Trinidad-Martínez, I.; Reyes-Novelo, E.; Esteve-Gassent, M.; de León, A.P. Ticks Collected from Humans, Domestic Animals, and Wildlife in Yucatan, Mexico. Vet. Parasitol. 2016, 215, 106–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Calvopiña, M.; Montesdeoca-Andrade, M.; Bastidas-Caldes, C.; Enriquez, S.; Rodríguez-Hidalgo, R.; Aguilar-Rodríguez, D.; Cooper, P. Case Report: First Report on Human Infection by Tick-Borne Babesia bigemina in the Amazon Region of Ecuador. Front. Public Health 2023, 11, 1079042. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Merino, O.; de la Cruz, N.; Martinez, J.; de León, A.; Romero-Salas, D.; Esteve-Gassent, M.; Lagunes-Quintanilla, R. Molecular Detection of Rickettsia Species in Ticks Collected in the Mexico-USA Transboundary Region. Exp. Appl. Acarol. 2020, 80, 559–567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Aguilar-Domínguez, M.; Moo-Llanes, D.; Sánchez-Montes, S.; Becker, I.; Feria-Arroyo, T.; de León, A.P.; Romero-Salas, D. Potential Distribution of Amblyomma mixtum (Koch, 1844) in Climate Change Scenarios in the Americas. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 2021, 12, 101812. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Chaparro-Gutiérrez, J.; Acevedo-Gutiérrez, L.; Mendell, N.; Robayo-Sánchez, L.; Rodríguez-Durán, A.; Cortés-Vecino, J.; Fernández, D.; Ramírez-Hernández, A.; Bouyer, D. First Isolation of Rickettsia amblyommatis from Amblyomma mixtum in Colombia. Parasit. Vectors 2023, 16, 332. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Cárdenas-Amaya, C.; Romero-Salas, D.; Rafael, M.; Chaparro-Gutiérrez, J.; López-Osorio, S.; Aguilar-Domínguez, M.; Alonso-Díaz, M.; de León, A.P.; de la Fuente, J. Molecular Detection of Anaplasma marginale in Amblyomma mixtum Infesting Cattle in the Major Livestock-Producing States of Mexico. Pathogens 2025, 14, 214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Acevedo-Gutiérrez, L.; Paternina, L.; Londoño, A.; Parra-Henao, G.; Rodas, J. Modelos Potenciales de Distribución Geográfica y Climática del Complejo Amblyomma cajennense (Acari: Ixodidae), Potencial Vector de Rickettsia rickettsii en Colombia. Biomédica 2018, 38, 534–544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Forero-Becerra, E.; Acosta, A.; Benavides, E.; Martínez-Díaz, H.; Hidalgo, M. Amblyomma mixtum Free-Living Stages: Inferences on Dry and Wet Seasons Use, Preference, and Niche Width in an Agroecosystem (Yopal, Casanare, Colombia). PLoS ONE 2022, 17, e0245109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Oviedo, Á.; Rodríguez, M.; Flores, F.; Castro, L. New Hard Tick (Acari: Ixodidae) Reports and Detection of Rickettsia in Ticks from Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia. Exp. Appl. Acarol. 2024, 92, 507–528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Silva-Ramos, C.; Prieto-Torres, A.; Zuñiga, A.; Cortés-Vecino, J.; Ortiz, B.; Cuellar, C.; Medina-Lozano, L.; Faccini-Martínez, Á. Immune Thrombocytopenia Possibly Triggered by Multiple Tick Bites. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo 2025, 67, e1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Sánchez-Montes, S.; Ríos-Muñoz, C.; Espinosa-Martínez, D.; Guzmán-Cornejo, C.; Berzunza-Cruz, M.; Becker, I. First report of “Candidatus Rickettsia amblyommii” in west coast of Mexico. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 2016, 7, 1139–1145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Rivera-Páez, F.; Labruna, M.; Martins, T.; Perez, J.; Castaño-Villa, G.; Ossa-López, P.; Camargo-Mathias, M. Contributions to the Knowledge of Hard Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) in Colombia. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 2018, 9, 57–66. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Rodríguez-Durán, A.; Chaparro-Gutiérrez, J.; Cortés-Vecino, J. Factors Associated with Tick Infestation in Cattle in the Department of Arauca, Colombia. Rev. Colomb. Cienc. Pecu. 2024, 37, 150–151. [Google Scholar]
  28. Beck, H.; Zimmermann, N.; McVicar, T.; Vergopolan, N.; Berg, A.; Wood, E. Present and Future Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification Maps at 1-km Resolution. Sci. Data 2020, 7, 274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Pinzón, C.; Rangel-Ch, J.; Minorta-Cely, O.; Aymard, G. Plant Richness and Diversity of Flowering Plants in the Wetlands and Floodplain Savannas of the Arauca Department, Colombia. BioLlania 2017, 15, 470–532. [Google Scholar]
  30. Rangel-Ch, J.; Gopar-Merino, L.; Minorta-Cely, V. Caracterización Climática de las Sabanas Inundables y los Humedales de Arauca, Colombia. BioLlania 2017, 15, 357–409. [Google Scholar]
  31. Parques Nacionales Naturales de Colombia (PNNC). Distrito Nacional de Manejo Integrado Cinaruco. Available online: https://www.parquesnacionales.gov.co/nuestros-parques/dmi-cinaruco/ (accessed on 18 May 2025).
  32. Strickland, R.K.; Gerrish, R.R.; Hourrigan, J.L.; Schubert, G.O. Ticks of Veterinary Importance. In USDA, Agricultural Handbook 485; U.S. Department of Agriculture: Washington, DC, USA, 1976; p. 122. [Google Scholar]
  33. Barros-Battesti, D.; Arzua, M.; Bechara, G. Carrapatos de Importância Médico-Veterinária da Região Neotropical: Um Guia Ilustrado Para Identificação de Espécies; Vox/ICTTD-3/Butantan: São Paulo, Brazil, 2006; p. 223. [Google Scholar]
  34. Barros-Battesti, D.; Castilho, V.; Dantas-Torres, F. Acari (Order): Ticks. In Concepts in Animal Parasitology; Gardner, S.L., Ed.; Zea Books: Lincoln, NE, USA, 2024; pp. 798–835. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Kleinjan, J.; Lane, R. Larval Keys to the Genera of Ixodidae (Acari) and Species of Ixodes (Latreille) Ticks Established in California. Pan-Pac. Entomol. 2008, 84, 121–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Estrada-Peña, A. Ticks as Vectors: Taxonomy, Biology and Ecology. Rev. Sci. Tech. 2015, 34, 53–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Nava, S.; Venzal, J.M.; González-Acuña, D.; Martins, T.F.; Guglielmone, A.A. Ticks of the Southern Cone of America: Diagnosis, Distribution, and Hosts with Taxonomy, Ecology and Sanitary Importance; Academic Press/Elsevier: London, UK, 2017; p. 348. [Google Scholar]
  38. Mangold, A.; Bargues, M.; Mas-Coma, S. Mitochondrial 16S rDNA Sequences and Phylogenetic Relationships of Species of Rhipicephalus and Other Tick Genera Among Metastriata (Acari: Ixodidae). Parasitol. Res. 1998, 84, 478–484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Folmer, O.; Black, M.; Hoeh, W.; Lutz, R.; Vrijenhoek, R. DNA Primers for Amplification of Mitochondrial Cytochrome c Oxidase Subunit I from Diverse Metazoan Invertebrates. Mol. Mar. Biol. Biotechnol. 1994, 3, 294–299. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  40. Tamura, K.; Stecher, G.; Kumar, S. MEGA11: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis Version 11. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2021, 38, 3022–3027. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  41. Haddad, V.; Haddad, M.; Santos, M.; Cardoso, J. Skin Manifestations of Tick Bites in Humans. An. Bras. Dermatol. 2018, 93, 251–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Ng, Y.Q.; Gupte, T.; Krause, P. Tick Hypersensitivity and Human Tick-Borne Diseases. Parasite Immunol. 2021, 43, e12819. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Koczwarska, J.; Pawełczyk, A.; Dunaj-Małyszko, J.; Polaczyk, J.; Welc-Falęciak, R. Rickettsia Species in Dermacentor reticulatus Ticks Feeding on Human Skin and Clinical Manifestations of Tick-Borne Infections After Tick Bite. Sci. Rep. 2023, 13, 9930. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Busi, A.; Castaño-Villa, G.; Rivera-Páez, F. Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) on Resident and Migratory Wild Birds in Orinoquia Region, Colombia. Acta Trop. 2024, 254, 107210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Rodríguez-Durán, A.; Robayo-Sánchez, L.; Benítez-Molano, J.; Chaparro-Gutiérrez, J.; Cortés-Vecino, J. Wildlife as Important Hosts of Ticks in the Flooded Savanna of Colombia. Braz. J. Vet. Res. Anim. Sci. 2025, 62, e226567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Labruna, M.; Amaku, M.; Metzner, J.; Pinter, A.; Ferreira, F. Larval Behavioral Diapause Regulates Life Cycle of Amblyomma cajennense (Acari: Ixodidae) in Southeast Brazil. J. Med. Entomol. 2003, 40, 170–178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Ali, A.; Zeb, I.; Alouffi, A.; Zahid, H.; Almutairi, M.; Ayed, F.; Alrouji, M.; Termignoni, C.; Júnior, I.V.; Tanaka, T. Host Immune Responses to Salivary Components—A Critical Facet of Tick-Host Interactions. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2022, 12, 809052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Castillo-Martínez, A.; Cueto-Medina, S.; Hernández-Rodríguez, M.; Salinas-Ramírez, N.; Romero-Santos, R.; Martínez-Patricio, G.; García-López, E. Amblyomma mixtum Koch (Acari: Ixodidae) en Ambientes Peridomésticos de la Región Otomí-Tepehua, Hidalgo, México. Rev. Chil. Entomol. 2020, 46, 661–669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Chitimia-Dobler, L.; Schaper, S.; Mansfeld, P.; Gonschorrek, J.; Broeker, M.; Nava, S. Detection of Amblyomma mixtum (Acari: Ixodidae) in Germany on a Human Traveler Returning from Cuba. J. Med. Entomol. 2020, 57, 962–964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Goddard, J.; Wyatt, J. The Evolution of a Tick Bite Lesion. Cureus 2022, 14, e29865. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Kassiri, H.; Nasirian, H. New Insights About Human Tick Infestation Features: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2021, 28, 17000–17028. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Novakova, M.; Literak, I.; Chevez, L.; Martins, T.; Ogrzewalska, M.; Labruna, M. Rickettsial Infections in Ticks from Reptiles, Birds and Humans in Honduras. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 2015, 6, 737–742. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Patz, J.; Graczyk, T.; Geller, N.; Vittor, A. Effects of Environmental Change on Emerging Parasitic Diseases. Int. J. Parasitol. 2000, 30, 1395–1405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Quintero, J.; Mignone, J.; Osorio, L.; Cienfuegos-Gallet, A.; Rojas, A. Housing Conditions Linked to Tick (Ixodida: Ixodidae) Infestation in Rural Areas of Colombia: A Potential Risk for Rickettsial Transmission. J. Med. Entomol. 2021, 58, 439–449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Cuéllar-Sáenz, J.; Faccini-Martínez, Á.; Ramírez-Hernández, A.; Cortés-Vecino, J. Rickettsioses in Colombia During the 20th Century: A Historical Review. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 2023, 14, 102118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Wild 02 00027 g001
Figure 1. Geographical locations where ticks were collected in the flooded savanna region of Arauca Department, Colombia. 1. Mata de Gallina, 2. Saya, 3. Arrecifes, 4. DNMI Cinaruco 1, 5. DNMI Cinaruco 2, and 6. Caño Colorado. The map was generated using ArcGIS v10.3.1 (ArcGIS Development Team, 2020).
Figure 1. Geographical locations where ticks were collected in the flooded savanna region of Arauca Department, Colombia. 1. Mata de Gallina, 2. Saya, 3. Arrecifes, 4. DNMI Cinaruco 1, 5. DNMI Cinaruco 2, and 6. Caño Colorado. The map was generated using ArcGIS v10.3.1 (ArcGIS Development Team, 2020).
Wild 02 00027 g001
Wild 02 00027 g002
Figure 2. Ticks observed in parasitic (host) and non-parasitic (vegetation) stages near households of tick-infested individuals in the flooded savanna region of the department of Arauca, Colombia. (a) and (b) ticks in the non-parasitic phase in vegetation, (c) cattle (Bos indicus), (d) collared peccary (Dicotyles tajacu), (e) horses (Equus caballus), and (f) canines (Canis familiaris). Arrow indicates the location of ticks on animal and human hosts, or on vegetation.
Figure 2. Ticks observed in parasitic (host) and non-parasitic (vegetation) stages near households of tick-infested individuals in the flooded savanna region of the department of Arauca, Colombia. (a) and (b) ticks in the non-parasitic phase in vegetation, (c) cattle (Bos indicus), (d) collared peccary (Dicotyles tajacu), (e) horses (Equus caballus), and (f) canines (Canis familiaris). Arrow indicates the location of ticks on animal and human hosts, or on vegetation.
Wild 02 00027 g002
Wild 02 00027 g003
Figure 3. Taxonomic identification of ticks collected from humans, animals, and vegetation in the flooded savanna region of the Arauca department, Colombia. (a,b) Male nymph of Amblyomma mixtum: dorsal and ventral views. (c) Female nymph of A. mixtum: dorsal view. (d–f) Female adult of A. mixtum: dorsal and ventral views.
Figure 3. Taxonomic identification of ticks collected from humans, animals, and vegetation in the flooded savanna region of the Arauca department, Colombia. (a,b) Male nymph of Amblyomma mixtum: dorsal and ventral views. (c) Female nymph of A. mixtum: dorsal view. (d–f) Female adult of A. mixtum: dorsal and ventral views.
Wild 02 00027 g003
Wild 02 00027 g004
Figure 4. Body regions of collection and infestation rates of Amblyomma mixtum in humans by developmental stage. (a) distribution of anatomical attachment sites of A. mixtum ticks at different developmental stages (larvae, nymphs, or adults) on infested humans and (b) infestation rate by life stage (larvae, nymphs, or adults) among six individuals reporting A. mixtum infestation.
Figure 4. Body regions of collection and infestation rates of Amblyomma mixtum in humans by developmental stage. (a) distribution of anatomical attachment sites of A. mixtum ticks at different developmental stages (larvae, nymphs, or adults) on infested humans and (b) infestation rate by life stage (larvae, nymphs, or adults) among six individuals reporting A. mixtum infestation.
Wild 02 00027 g004
Wild 02 00027 g005
Figure 5. Anatomical distribution of ticks and tick bite-associated skin lesions on different body parts of affected individuals from the flooded savanna of the department of Arauca, Colombia. (a) Infestation by an adult Amblyomma mixtum on the left ankle (Geographic location: Caño Colorado), (b) infestation by an adult A. mixtum on the right ankle (Geographic location: DNMI Cinaruco 1), (c) cutaneous manifestations (primary lesions) caused by the bite of an adult A. mixtum on the left ankle (Geographic location: Caño Colorado), (d) infestation of several larvae of A. mixtum on the left foot (Geographic location: Saya), (e) infestation of an adult A. mixtum on the thoracic dorsum (Geographic location: DNMI Cinaruco 2), (f) infestation by nymphs of A. mixtum in the lumbar region (Geographic location: Arrecifes), and (g) infestation by A. mixtum nymphs on the left arm (Geographic location: DNMI Cinaruco 2). Arrows indicate ticks and erythema. The circle indicates skin alterations following A. mixtum infestation.
Figure 5. Anatomical distribution of ticks and tick bite-associated skin lesions on different body parts of affected individuals from the flooded savanna of the department of Arauca, Colombia. (a) Infestation by an adult Amblyomma mixtum on the left ankle (Geographic location: Caño Colorado), (b) infestation by an adult A. mixtum on the right ankle (Geographic location: DNMI Cinaruco 1), (c) cutaneous manifestations (primary lesions) caused by the bite of an adult A. mixtum on the left ankle (Geographic location: Caño Colorado), (d) infestation of several larvae of A. mixtum on the left foot (Geographic location: Saya), (e) infestation of an adult A. mixtum on the thoracic dorsum (Geographic location: DNMI Cinaruco 2), (f) infestation by nymphs of A. mixtum in the lumbar region (Geographic location: Arrecifes), and (g) infestation by A. mixtum nymphs on the left arm (Geographic location: DNMI Cinaruco 2). Arrows indicate ticks and erythema. The circle indicates skin alterations following A. mixtum infestation.
Wild 02 00027 g005
Wild 02 00027 g006
Figure 6. Maximum likelihood tree reconstruction using (a) mitochondrial 16S rDNA gene sequences from Amblyomma mixtum and (b) mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (cox1) gene sequences from A. mixtum. Highlighted in black are the sequences from A. mixtum collected in this study. Additional sequences from GenBank (accession number in parentheses) and bootstrap values (1000) are shown at each node. Argas persicus was used as the outgroup for the genus Amblyomma.
Figure 6. Maximum likelihood tree reconstruction using (a) mitochondrial 16S rDNA gene sequences from Amblyomma mixtum and (b) mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (cox1) gene sequences from A. mixtum. Highlighted in black are the sequences from A. mixtum collected in this study. Additional sequences from GenBank (accession number in parentheses) and bootstrap values (1000) are shown at each node. Argas persicus was used as the outgroup for the genus Amblyomma.
Wild 02 00027 g006
Table 1. Anatomical sites and counts of Amblyomma mixtum tick infestations in humans and animals in the flooded savanna of the Arauca department, Colombia.
Table 1. Anatomical sites and counts of Amblyomma mixtum tick infestations in humans and animals in the flooded savanna of the Arauca department, Colombia.
NoHostsSexAge (Years) 1Profession 1Geographic LocationMonitoring Time (Days)Number of Ticks and StageTick Attachment Sites
LarvaeNymphAdultLarvaeNymphAdult
Parasitic phase
1HumanMale24FarmerSaya5012N/AAnterior left thighLeft scapular region
2HumanMale9NoneDNMI Cinaruco 10120Lateral region of the right legRight scapular regionN/A
3HumanMale35FarmerDNMI Cinaruco 25711Medial region of the left footLeft inguinal regionUpper region of the right shoulder
4HumanFemale53NoneArrecifes0011N/ARight lower abdominal regionBack of the left forearm
5HumanMale60FarmerCaño Colorado0011N/ARight thoracic region (lateral)Back of the right arm
6HumanMale47NoneDNMI Cinaruco 20300Anterior region of the right ankleN/AN/A
7DogFemale2N/AMata de Gallina0001N/AN/ATarsal region
8DogMale1N/ADNMI Cinaruco 23001N/AN/ACaudal abdomen
9DogFemale4N/ADNMI Cinaruco 12012N/ALeft footLumbar and facial region
10HorseMale7N/ADNMI Cinaruco 13003N/AN/AVentral region of the neck
11HorseMale4N/ADNMI Cinaruco 23001N/AN/ALeft flank
12Collared peccaryFemaleNDN/AArrecifes0001N/AN/AChest
13Collared peccaryMaleNDN/AMata de Gallina0012N/ALeft legNeck and face region
Non-parasitic phase
14ForestN/AN/AN/ASayaN/A2304N/AN/AN/A
15Farm pasturesN/AN/AN/ADNMI Cinaruco 1N/A3710N/AN/AN/A
16Farm pasturesN/AN/AN/ADNMI Cinaruco 2N/A1813N/AN/AN/A
17ForestN/AN/AN/AArrecifesN/A627N/AN/AN/A
18Farm pasturesN/AN/AN/ACaño ColoradoN/A4034N/AN/AN/A
19ForestN/AN/AN/ADNMI Cinaruco 2N/A5432N/AN/AN/A
Total1781020
1 ND, not determined. N/A, not applicable.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Rodríguez-Durán, A.; Peña-Navarro, D.; Andrade-Silva, V.; Parizi, L.F.; da Silva Vaz Junior, I.; Cortés-Vecino, J.A. Amblyomma mixtum (Acari: Ixodidae) Infestation in Humans in the Flooded Savanna Region of Colombia. Wild 2025, 2, 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/wild2030027

AMA Style

Rodríguez-Durán A, Peña-Navarro D, Andrade-Silva V, Parizi LF, da Silva Vaz Junior I, Cortés-Vecino JA. Amblyomma mixtum (Acari: Ixodidae) Infestation in Humans in the Flooded Savanna Region of Colombia. Wild. 2025; 2(3):27. https://doi.org/10.3390/wild2030027

Chicago/Turabian Style

Rodríguez-Durán, Arlex, Diana Peña-Navarro, Vinícius Andrade-Silva, Luís Fernando Parizi, Itabajara da Silva Vaz Junior, and Jesús Alfredo Cortés-Vecino. 2025. "Amblyomma mixtum (Acari: Ixodidae) Infestation in Humans in the Flooded Savanna Region of Colombia" Wild 2, no. 3: 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/wild2030027

APA Style

Rodríguez-Durán, A., Peña-Navarro, D., Andrade-Silva, V., Parizi, L. F., da Silva Vaz Junior, I., & Cortés-Vecino, J. A. (2025). Amblyomma mixtum (Acari: Ixodidae) Infestation in Humans in the Flooded Savanna Region of Colombia. Wild, 2(3), 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/wild2030027

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop