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Article

The Impact of Emotional Intelligence on the Psychological Well-Being of Young Graduates in Portugal

by
Manuela Larguinho
1,2,3,*,
Sandrina Leal
1 and
Rita Lopes
1
1
Coimbra Business School, ISCAC, Polytechnic University of Coimbra, Rua da Misericórdia, Lagar dos Cortiços, S. Martinho do Bispo, 3045-093 Coimbra, Portugal
2
CEOS.PP Coimbra, Polytechnic University of Coimbra, 3045-601 Coimbra, Portugal
3
Research Center for Natural Resources, Environment and Society (CERNAS), Polytechnic University of Coimbra, Bencanta, 3045-601 Coimbra, Portugal
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Psychol. Int. 2025, 7(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/psycholint7020029
Submission received: 15 December 2024 / Revised: 10 March 2025 / Accepted: 12 March 2025 / Published: 1 April 2025
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Background: The present research seeks to understand the impact of emotional intelligence on the psychological well-being of young graduates Well-being is closely linked to happiness and life satisfaction and occurs when individuals possess adequate psychological, social, and physical resources to manage life’s challenges. Emotional Intelligence, defined as the ability to recognize, understand, and regulate emotions, has been identified as a key factor influencing psychological well-being. Research highlights that individuals with higher emotional intelligence tend to experience greater life satisfaction, lower stress levels, and improved mental health. However, the specific impact of emotional intelligence on the psychological well-being of young graduates remains underexplored, particularly in the Portuguese context, making this study highly relevant. Methods:To investigate this impact, a questionnaire was administered to a sample of 209 young graduates in Portugal, which included emotional intelligence and psychological well-being items and a multiple regression model was used. Results: the results obtained indicate that emotional intelligence has a statistically significant influence on psychological well-being, where young people with higher levels of emotional intelligence showed higher levels of psychological well-being. Regarding age and sex, our data did not show a statistically significant relationship with emotional intelligence or psychological well-being. Conclusions: In summary, this study confirmed that young people with greater ability to manage their own emotions are more likely to experience higher psychological well-being.

1. Introduction

Well-being is associated with happiness and life satisfaction. It occurs when an individual has sufficient psychological, social, and physical resources to handle life’s challenges. Conversely, when problems exceed the available resources, well-being is compromised (Dodge et al., 2012). Well-being is composed of two personal dimensions (life satisfaction and personal development) and a social dimension (the perception of being part of a community) (Marks & Shah, 2004). Davis (2024) defines well-being as “the experience of health, happiness, and prosperity. It includes having good mental health, high life satisfaction, a sense of meaning or purpose, and the ability to manage stress”. More broadly, well-being refers to an overall state of feeling good.
Emotional intelligence (EI) and psychological well-being (PWB) have attracted significant interest from researchers. Ferragut and Fierro (2012) consider that the association between EI and mental health is one of the most relevant branches of EI research.
The relationship between EI and PWB in young adults has garnered significant attention in recent research. For example, Ndayiragije (2021) identified a strong positive correlation between EI and mental well-being, highlighting EI as a key predictor of psychological health. This conclusion aligns with research suggesting that individuals with higher EI are more adept at handling stress and employing effective coping strategies, both of which are crucial for sustaining mental health (Nogaj, 2020).
This research aims to answer the following question: What is the impact of emotional intelligence on the psychological well-being of young graduates? For this study, a young person refers to an individual up to 29 years old, while a recent graduate is someone who has completed their degree within the past two years.
To our knowledge, no previous studies have examined this topic in the context of young graduates in Portugal, making this research particularly relevant.

1.1. Emotional Intelligence

According to Grewal and Salovey (2005), EI is defined as the individual’s ability to regulate one’s own emotions and those of others, as well as to understand and discriminate them, facilitating the achievement of goals. It becomes fundamental to promote psychological health and resilience.
Interest in EI has grown significantly due to rapid social and organizational changes (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2000). In recent decades, workplaces have undergone major transformations, requiring organizations to adapt to changes, which has, in turn, affected employees’ quality of life (Pereira, 2010). Thus, these changes have led to new requirements: creativity, flexibility (both professionally and personally), changing orientation, constant innovation, motivation, increased productivity, and focus on results (Costa & Neves, 2012).
Employees’ entrepreneurial spirit is crucial for companies’ long-term sustainability and success in a competitive market (Ceitil, 2007). These EI skills of employees are the most valued in the Human Resource Management system (Goleman, 2009) and are seen as a key part of developing competitive advantage for organizations (Othman et al., 2008). EI continues to be a vital aspect of growth for leaders aiming to enhance their effectiveness and influence (Filice & Weese, 2024).
Salovey and Mayer (1990) distinguish between the concepts of intelligence and EI, stating that intelligence refers to the individual’s ability to internalize information/knowledge and apply it in various contexts, while EI directs actions to the reading of emotions, understanding and applying them to everyday situations.
For Wiginton (2024), “Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize, understand, and manage your own and other’s emotions.” Individuals with high EI often experience more fulfilling personal and professional relationships, along with enhanced PWB.
Thus, EI consists of a set of mental mechanisms necessary for problem solving and behavior management, that is, the ability that the individual has to identify, use, understand, and regulate emotions in himself and in others.

1.2. Psychological Well-Being

PWB encompasses personal development, self-growth, and self-fulfillment (Ryff, 1989), as well as resilience in facing life’s challenges (Keyes et al., 2002). It is a construct based on psychological theory, grouping knowledge from several areas, such as psychology of human development, humanistic–existential psychology, and mental health, regarding positive or optimal psychological functioning (Ryff, 1989).
Ryff (1989) describes PWB as a multidimensional construct, where happiness results from personal growth and fulfillment rather than being a fixed life goal. In this model proposed by Ryff, the individual is the agent of his own development, in which he builds and achieves the potential of his self (Ryff & Keyes, 1995). The PWB is based on personal growth, individual commitment to challenges and opportunities in life, and goal setting in life (Keyes et al., 2002).
Loon et al. (2019) argue that PWB focuses on the development of human potential and encompasses self-acceptance, self-realization, autonomy, positive relationships with others, and personal growth.
Organizations are increasingly investing in human resource management strategies that promote employee well-being, development, and training (Greige Frangieh & Khayr Yaacoub, 2019). They also prioritize diversity, inclusion, and work–life balance, all of which contribute significantly to workplace well-being (Podgorodnichenko et al., 2022).

1.3. The Relation Between Emotional Intelligence and Psychological Well-Being

Emotions are fundamental in our day-to-day lives, as they help people when they have to make decisions, how they can face daily setbacks, and how to preserve their well-being. People who know how to manage their emotions are able to identify them better and adapt a reaction, action, thought, and/or behavior to better cope with their emotional experiences (Santana & Gondim, 2016).
EI skills enable individuals to regulate their emotions more effectively, reducing negative emotional responses and enhancing positive ones. This has implications for health, well-being, and personal growth (Brackett et al., 2011; Lanciano & Curci, 2015). The research consistently links EI to higher life satisfaction and lower stress levels (Bastian et al., 2005; Forushani & Besharat, 2011).
The relationship between EI and PWB is widely discussed in the literature (Burrus et al., 2012; Rathnakara, 2014). According to Burrus et al. (2012), emotionally intelligent people experience higher levels of PWB, such as life satisfaction, self-acceptance, and self-esteem (Carmeli et al., 2009). The same authors identify the relationship between EI and PWB, stating that individuals with high levels of EI have a greater capacity to adequately regulate behaviors not only in positive situations but also in negative situations.
The link between EI and PWB is evident in how emotionally intelligent individuals develop effective coping strategies and positive social interactions. Individuals with high EI tend to adopt adaptive coping mechanisms—such as seeking social support and effectively expressing their emotions—which are associated with reduced levels of stress and depression (Nag et al., 2023). This adaptive behavior creates a positive feedback loop: improved EI leads to better PWB, which in turn strengthens one’s emotional competencies (Lee & Sim, 2021; Oparaugo & Ebenebe, 2021). Moreover, EI has been identified as a significant predictor of psychological resilience, underscoring its crucial role in maintaining mental health during challenging circumstances (Ibrahim et al., 2022; Shuo et al., 2022).
In summary, individuals with high EI are more aware of their emotions and manage them more effectively. They tend to be more open, communicative, and resilient when facing conflicts. This emotional awareness fosters positive relationships, goal-setting, and personal growth, all of which contribute to higher PWB (Mayer et al., 2004).

2. Objectives and Hypotheses

This study was guided by the following research question: What is the impact of emotional intelligence on the psychological well-being of young graduates? For the purposes of this research, a young individual was defined as someone up to 29 years old, while a recent graduate referred to a person who completed their degree no more than two years ago.
The general objective of this research was to study the impact of EI on the PWB of young graduates. To achieve this objective, the following specific objectives were recommended: to analyze the level of knowledge that young graduates have of EI and PWB and to determine the relationship between EI and PWB.
An individual with EI is able to recognize their feelings and those of others. This recognition leads to effective regulation that affects oneself and others, contributing to well-being (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Some studies reveal that emotionally intelligent people have high levels of PWB, experiencing positive feelings more often (Burrus et al., 2012; Higgs & Dulewicz, 2014; Lanciano & Curci, 2015; Rathnakara, 2014). Thus, people with high levels of EI have high levels of PWB (Lye et al., 2023; Malayil et al., 2024; Nag et al., 2023; Rana et al., 2024; Rathnakara, 2014; Shengyao et al., 2024).
According to some studies (Akhter, 2015; Li et al., 2015; Viertiö et al., 2021, there are differences in PWB levels between females and males, as females have higher levels in certain dimensions, while males have higher levels in other dimensions. According to Li et al. (2015), females have less autonomy, but a greater mastery of the environment than males. In the studies conducted by (Khosla, 2021; Lye et al., 2023; Nag et al., 2023), no differences were found between gender and PWB.
There is no clear trend in the literature as to whether PWB changes over the course of individuals’ experience and over the years, but there are studies that show a relationship between age and PWB (e.g., Panahi et al., 2016; Roslan et al., 2017; Springer et al., 2011)). In the study by Panahi et al. (2016), it is concluded that there is a positive correlation between PWB and the dimensions of autonomy, personal growth, and life goals. According to Springer et al. (2011), personal growth and life goals decrease with the age of individuals, that is, the lower their personal growth and life goals. However, in the studies conducted by (Khosla, 2021; Lye et al., 2023), no differences were found between age and PWB.
From this perspective, the first hypothesis of the study arises:
H1. 
PWB is influenced by EI, sex, and age of young graduates.
H1a. 
EI positively impacts PWB.
H1b. 
Sex influences PWB.
H1c. 
Age influences PWB.
From the 1960s onwards, several ways of looking at the sex variable began to emerge in terms of the thinking and experience of each of the sexes, since there are differences not only in early socialization, but also biological ones, which can lead to different expectations, motivations, attitudes, values, and behaviors between the sexes. Some studies indicate that women often obtain higher scores than men on EI assessments (Cabello et al., 2016; Mandell & Pherwani, 2003). Specifically, studies have shown that women tend to perform better in aspects like recognizing and regulating emotions (Cassano et al., 2020; Vučenović & Hajncl, 2018). EI significantly influences gender dynamics in the workplace, with women frequently demonstrating higher EI, which could help explain the perceived advantage of female leadership (Hsu et al., 2022). However, these differences are not consistently observed across all components of EI or in every study. However, this trend is not observed in all studies, since, in the studies carried out by (Barros & Sacau-Fontenla, 2021; Kuldeep, 2022), males have higher levels of EI compared to females. Although these patterns exist, some research finds no substantial gender differences in EI. For example, a study conducted on medical students revealed similar EI scores for both genders, though females showed higher levels of psychological distress (Mahaur et al., 2017). The same result was found in the research performed by Alheet and Hamdan (2021), Dishari and Alafnan (2023), and Salavera et al. (2017).
Considering the divergence of empirical studies, this paper intends to verify whether females have higher levels of EI than males, and in this sense, the second hypothesis arises:
H2. 
The level of EI is different in males and females.
Some studies focus on the relationship between age and EI, but the results are divergent. EI tends to develop over time, with older individuals typically scoring higher on EI assessments than younger ones. This is especially evident in more complex areas, like interpreting and managing emotions, self-reflection, and emotional regulation (Vučenović & Hajncl, 2018). The study performed by Dave et al. (2021) on young adults aged from 20 to 25 years observed a moderate rise in the EI trait over four years, indicating that EI can develop during early adulthood. According to Goleman (2015), EI evolves with maturity and age, and with age comes experience. On the other hand, the study of Cakirpaloglu et al. (2023) revealed a negative correlation between EI and age among teachers, suggesting that EI declines as they grow older and gain more work experience. In the same sense, the research of Gutiérrez-Cobo et al. (2023) indicated a negative relationship between age and cognitive empathy, which is related to EI, but this was mitigated by higher educational levels. However, there are studies that show no correlation between age and EI. The study conducted by Alheet and Hamdan (2021) concludes that there is not a significant relationship between age and EI of employees working in the Jordanian retail industry. The same conclusion can be found in the study of Usha and Solomon (2022) on adolescents between 17 and 19 years old.
Thus, the last hypothesis of the study is formulated:
H3. 
EI does not differ in the age range of 20–29 years.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Method and Measures

In the present empirical study, a quantitative methodology was used since it is the most appropriate method to find the relationships between the variables EI and demographic variables (sex and age) and PWB. This methodology was used, for example, by Ramya (2014), to explore the relationship between EI and PWB among young adults.
For the reason that it is more suitable for this investigation, a questionnaire was administered. The questionnaires used in this study were those of the authors Novo et al. (1997) for the PWB, with 18 items, and for the EI scale, with 21 items, we used that of Rego and Fernandes (2005). In all statements of the PWB and IE scales, the 7-point Likert scale was used. The scales used have been validated in Portugal.
The questionnaire for this research was prepared using the Google Forms platform, with a maximum response duration of 10 minutes and divulged online, by email and social networks, so that we were able to obtain the answers easily, quickly and safely. The dissemination took place between January and June 2024, and it is considered that this type of online application provided respondents the freedom to answer without the constraint of the surveyor’s presence.
In this research, a non-probabilistic sampling method was used, using convenience sampling, where the selected respondents are young graduates (up to 29 years old and who had finished their degree no more than 2 years ago), and snowball sampling, where these young people sent it to their peers.
After the period of dissemination of the questionnaire, 209 valid responses were obtained.

3.2. Sample Characterization

The sample consisted of 209 young graduates, 134 females (64.1%) and 75 males (35.9%). There were no null or blank answers.
  • Most respondents were aged between 20 and 24 years (51.2%).
  • Relating to the type of bachelor’s degree, 96 young people (45.9%) finished a bachelor’s degree with an integrated master’s degree, and 113 young people (54.1%) finished a bachelor’s degree without an integrated master’s degree.
  • Regarding the undergraduate area, Business Sciences predominated with 28 young people (13.4%), Social and Behavioral Sciences with 26 young people (12.4%), and Health with 23 young people (11%).
  • Concerning professional status, 63 young people (30.1%) were students, 51 young people (24.4%) were full-time workers, 47 young people (22.5%) were working students, 30 young people (14.4%) were part-time workers, and 18 young people (8.6%) were unemployed.

3.3. Data Analysis

The internal consistency of the latent variables (EI and PWB) was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha (α) and Composite Reliability (CR). To evaluate the convergent validity, we analyzed the statistical significance of the standardized factor loadings and also calculated the average variance extracted (AVE). Subsequently, to test hypothesis H1, a Multiple Linear Regression (similar to Lye et al. (2023) and Malayil et al. (2024)) was performed to examine the influence of the EI, sex, and age variables on PWB, using the Enter method and the Stepwise Method. The dependent variable was “psychological well-being” (continuous variable) and the independent variables were “emotional intelligence” (continuous variable), age [Dummy variable: from 0–20 to 24 years old (n = 107) and from 1–25 to 29 years (n = 102)], and sex [Dummy variable: 0–Female (n = 134) and 1- Male n = 75)]. The validation assumptions of the model were met, namely Minimum number of individuals per independent variable; Independent residuals; Absence of multicollinearity; Absence of outliers; Normally distributed residuals; and Homoscedasticity.
Finally, to test hypotheses H2 and H3, since the assumption of normality of the distribution of EI was not met in the groups of analyzed variables, two independent sample Mann–Whitney tests were conducted to determine whether significant differences in EI exist based on demographic factors, specifically sex and age.
The level of significance used in the results of the hypothesis tests was α = 0.05, rejecting the null hypothesis when the p-value was lower than that value.
For the statistical data analysis, the IBM SPSS version 29.0 software was used.

3.4. Ethical Considerations

This study followed ethical principles, ensuring participant confidentiality and anonymity. Informed consent was obtained, emphasizing voluntary participation and the right to withdraw. Data were collected solely for academic purposes, with no personal identifiers, maintaining privacy and research integrity.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Validation of Hypotheses

We began by assessing internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha and CR. Both scales demonstrated good reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha values of α = 0.835 for the 18 PWB items and α = 0.876 for the 21 EI items. The CR values were 0.787 for PWB and 0.930 for EI, further confirming a good internal consistency of the variables under study. We then assessed convergent validity by examining the standardized factor loadings. Some values fell below the recommended threshold of 0.5 (Hair et al., 2010), and the AVE was 0.271 for the PWB variable and 0.421 for the EI variable, values also below the recommended 0.5. Consequently, items with factor loadings below the recommended level were removed—10 from PWB and 5 from EI. After these eliminations, all values improved. Accordingly, Cronbach’s alpha values were α = 0.894 for the 8 PWB items and α = 0.942 for the 16 EI items. The CR values of 0.916 for PWB and 0.949 for EI further confirmed excellent internal consistency. Regarding convergent validity, the AVE values were 0.579 for PWB and 0.541 for EI, indicating good convergent validity.
The results obtained to test the three hypotheses previously established are now presented.
As previously mentioned, to test hypothesis H1, we started by estimating a multiple linear regression model using the Enter method, whose results are presented in Table 1. It was verified that only EI contributed significantly (p-value < 0.001 < 0.05) to the explanation of PWB, and sex and age were not statistically significant in the model (p-values > 0.05).
After this, a linear regression model was estimated, using the Stepwise method, whose results are presented in Table 2.
By analyzing the results in Table 2, it is confirmed that only the variable EI is statistically significant to explain the behavior of the dependent variable PWB. Overall, the total variation in the PWB variable is explained by 51.9% in the estimated model, and the estimated model is globally significant (F (1, 207) = 222.974; p-value < 0.001). It is estimated that the increase of 1 unit in the EI implies, on average, an increase of 0.756 units in the PWB. Thus, hypothesis H1 is partially validated. Thus, H1a is validated, while hypotheses H1b and H1c are not validated.
Following, the Mann–Whitney tests were performed to test hypotheses H2 and H3, the results of which are presented in Table 3.
From the analysis of the results presented in Table 3, it can be seen that there were no statistically significant differences in EI for young males and females (p-value > 0.05), however, and although it is not a statistically significant difference, young females have a higher EI than young males. Likewise, it can be stated that there are no statistically significant differences in EI when comparing the two age groups under study. In this way, we can say that hypothesis H2 is not validated and hypothesis H3 is validated.

4.2. Discussion

The main objective of this study was to analyze the impact of EI on the PWB of young graduates, as well as the influence of age and gender on these two psychological dimensions.
The results obtained, based on a sample of 209 Portuguese young people, indicate that EI has a statistically significant influence on PWB, where young people with higher levels of EI had higher levels of PWB.
Regarding sex and age, the data did not show a statistically significant relationship with EI or PWB.
Concerning the positive association between EI and PWB in the context of recent graduates, the results obtained show that young people with a greater ability to manage their emotions and those of others (EI) are more likely to have a higher PWB. These results are in line with studies previously conducted by Burrus et al. (2012), who investigated the relationship between EI and PWB in 131 university students, showing the highest correlation reported to date between EI and PWB and demonstrating a statistically significant, positive, and moderate correlation (r = 0.54) between emotional management and eudaimonic well-being, related to personal growth and self-achievement, as well as a relationship with hedonic well-being, associated with pleasure and happiness. Also, the study by Nag et al. (2023) conducted with students of the B-school around Hyderabad Metro, India, revealed a positive and significant relationship between EI and PWB. In the same line, the study of Rana et al. (2024) provided empirical evidence of the beneficial effect of trait EI on students’ mental well-being and emphasized its importance in reducing psychological distress among higher education students. The same conclusion was reached in a study performed by Lye et al. (2023) conducted with 99 final-year chemical engineering students, mostly aged between 23 and 24 years, and the study of Shengyao et al. (2024) conducted among 518 university students in China. Also, the study of Malayil et al. (2024) showed a low positive correlation between EI and PWB (r = 0.313).
In summary, the result obtained for the main objective of the present study corroborates those of previous studies, which point to EI as an essential factor in emotional regulation, allowing individuals to face and overcome their conflicts and challenges more effectively, directly contributing to a greater PWB. In this way, the present research reinforces the relevance of EI as a determining factor for well-being, both in personal and professional contexts.
In the context of recent graduates, the relationship between PWB and EI becomes particularly relevant. These young people who have just entered the labor market face a series of challenges, from adapting to new routines to managing expectations and social pressures. The ability to deal with these emotions, facilitated by a higher EI, can be decisive for success not only professionally, but also personally.
The analyses conducted on the relationship between sex and PWB did not reveal statistically significant differences in this study. This finding suggests that, at this early stage of professional life, emotional skills do not yet exhibit substantial differences between men and women. Our result aligns with the findings of Nag et al. (2023) and Lye et al. (2023), who also reported no significant gender differences in PWB. Furthermore, our findings are consistent with the research conducted by Khosla (2021), in which a sample of 120 residents from New Delhi, India, participated, reinforcing the notion that emotional competencies may not diverge significantly between sexes in the initial stages of their professional development.
Regarding the association between age and PWB, the present study did not identify a significant correlation between these variables. This lack of association may be attributed to the limited age range of the sample, which may have constrained the ability to detect potential trends or variations in PWB across different age groups. These findings align with those of Springer et al. (2011), which used a sample of 6943 American participants and also showed that the association between age and PWB (using the Ryff model) is not very significant. Furthermore, our results are consistent with the findings of Lye et al. (2023) and Khosla (2021), reinforcing the notion that age may not be a major determinant of PWB or that its effects could be influenced by other moderating factors.
In summary, the results of this study suggest that age may not be a determining factor in changes in PWB over time. In addition to gender and age, it is possible that several other factors influenced the results in the PWB in the present study, although no specific analyses were performed to verify these associations. Socioeconomic status, for example, may have had an impact on PWB, with individuals with fewer financial resources possibly experiencing greater difficulties in achieving a high level of life satisfaction (Navarro-Carrillo et al., 2020). Similarly, health status, both physical and mental, may have influenced levels of well-being. Interpersonal relationships and social support, although not directly analyzed, could have contributed to the results (Linley et al., 2009). Finally, personality and job stability are also other factors, although not formally investigated, that may have played a role in the emotional and PWB of the participants.
Concerning the impact of gender and age on EI, our results do not reveal a statistically significant relationship between these variables. Regarding the relationship between gender and EI, our findings are consistent with those of several previous studies (e.g., Mahaur et al., 2017; Alheet & Hamdan, 2021; Dishari & Alafnan, 2023; Salavera et al., 2017), which have also reported similar patterns. Regarding the relationship between age and EI, our findings are consistent with those of several previous studies (Alheet & Hamdan, 2021; Usha & Solomon, 2022), which have also reported no significant association between these variables. This suggests that EI may remain relatively stable across different age groups, indicating that factors other than age—such as personality traits, life experiences, or environmental influences—could play a more critical role in shaping EI.
In summary, this study showed that EI is a fundamental characteristic for adapting to emotional and professional demands in young graduates, with age and gender assuming a less relevant role, at least in this sample.

5. Conclusions

This study examined the impact of EI on the PWB of young graduates in Portugal. The findings confirm that EI has a statistically significant positive influence on PWB, reinforcing the idea that individuals with higher EI experience greater PWB. However, no significant relationships were found between PWB and demographic variables, such as age and sex. Additionally, no significant differences in EI were observed across gender or age groups, suggesting that EI remains relatively stable among young graduates. These results align with the existing literature and highlight the importance of EI in helping young professionals navigate emotional and professional challenges. The study underscores the relevance of developing EI skills to enhance well-being, particularly in early career stages.

6. Limitations

This study has several limitations to consider. One of the limitations was the use of a self-report questionnaire, which, although practical and effective for data collection, may have introduced some bias in the results, as participants might have tended to respond in a socially desirable manner, particularly regarding the EI-related questions. Another limitation may be the representativeness of the sample, as the convenience sampling method, conducted via an online survey, may introduce selection bias. Since this type of sampling is not random, it can result in a sample that does not adequately reflect the diversity of the target population, compromising the external validity of the study. Additionally, the specific age range and life stage of the participants (recent graduates) limit the conclusions about how EI and PWB manifest at different stages of life. The fact that age was collected as a dichotomous variable rather than as an exact age (in years) may also have limited the robustness of the statistical analysis.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.L., S.L. and R.L.; methodology, M.L.; software, M.L.; validation, M.L., S.L. and R.L.; formal analysis, M.L.; investigation, R.L.; resources, R.L.; data curation, M.L.; writing—original draft preparation, R.L.; writing—review and editing, M.L.; visualization, M.L.; supervision, M.L. and S.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and the opinion of the ethics committee is not required for this type of questionnaire, as it does not involve a direct investigation between the participants and the researchers, nor questions that raise ethical issues. The participants provided their informed consent to participate in this study. Ethical review and approval were waived for this independent research because the study was conducted using anonymized data collected by researchers.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The scientific data will be made available by the authors whenever interest is expressed.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Table 1. Multiple regression model. Dependent variable: PWB in young recent graduates.
Table 1. Multiple regression model. Dependent variable: PWB in young recent graduates.
VariableBStd. ErrorBetatp-Value
Constant1.2020.343--3.507<0.001
EI0.7530.0510.71814.875<0.001
Sex−0.1270.119−0.052−1.0700.286
Age0.1610.1140.0681.4080.161
R2: 0.525; F (3, 205) = 75.573; p-value < 0.001.
Table 2. Simple regression model. Dependent variable: PWB in young recent graduates.
Table 2. Simple regression model. Dependent variable: PWB in young recent graduates.
VariableBStd. ErrorBetatp-Value
Constant1.1230.247--4.538<0.001
EI0.7560.0510.72014.932<0.001
R2: 0.519; F (1, 207) = 222.974; p-value < 0.001.
Table 3. Mann–Whitney tests for the variable EI of young recent graduates.
Table 3. Mann–Whitney tests for the variable EI of young recent graduates.
VariablenMean Rankzp-Value
SexFemale134105.52−0.1660.868
Male75104.07
Age20–24107108.88−0.9510.342
25–29102100.93
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Larguinho, M.; Leal, S.; Lopes, R. The Impact of Emotional Intelligence on the Psychological Well-Being of Young Graduates in Portugal. Psychol. Int. 2025, 7, 29. https://doi.org/10.3390/psycholint7020029

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Larguinho M, Leal S, Lopes R. The Impact of Emotional Intelligence on the Psychological Well-Being of Young Graduates in Portugal. Psychology International. 2025; 7(2):29. https://doi.org/10.3390/psycholint7020029

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Larguinho, Manuela, Sandrina Leal, and Rita Lopes. 2025. "The Impact of Emotional Intelligence on the Psychological Well-Being of Young Graduates in Portugal" Psychology International 7, no. 2: 29. https://doi.org/10.3390/psycholint7020029

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Larguinho, M., Leal, S., & Lopes, R. (2025). The Impact of Emotional Intelligence on the Psychological Well-Being of Young Graduates in Portugal. Psychology International, 7(2), 29. https://doi.org/10.3390/psycholint7020029

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