Previous Article in Journal
Physician Burnout: Systemic Challenges and Individual Resilience
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
JOMA
Volume 2
Issue 2
10.3390/joma2020011
joma-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

The Prevalence and Characteristics of Post-COVID-19 Syndrome Among Patients Attending the University Health Center in Muscat, Oman

by
Reem Ali Alhabsi
1,
Amani Abdullah Almukhladi
1,
Rania Ali Mahdi Kadhim
2,
Reham Ali Alhabsi
2,
Maisa Hamed Al Kiyumi
3,* and
Abdulaziz Al Mahrezi
3,*
1
Department of Primary Health Care Department, Ministry of Health, Muscat 100, Oman
2
College of Medicine & Health Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat 123, Oman
3
Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, Sultan Qaboos University Hospital, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat 123, Oman
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Oman Med. Assoc. 2025, 2(2), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/joma2020011
Submission received: 18 January 2025 / Revised: 28 June 2025 / Accepted: 18 July 2025 / Published: 26 July 2025
Versions Notes

Abstract

Background and Aims: The majority of individuals with COVID-19 developed acute symptoms. Post-COVID-19 syndrome refers to the signs and symptoms of COVID-19 that persist for more than 12 weeks. The present study was conducted to estimate the prevalence and risk factors for post-COVID-19 syndrome in the Omani population. Methods: This is a cross-sectional study that was conducted at the University Hospital Center (UHC). All patients diagnosed with COVID-19 (through polymerase chain reaction PCR testing) between March 2020 and March 2022 were included. Eligible participants were interviewed through a phone call, informed about the study procedure, and invited to participate in the study. Results: The study enrolled 265 COVID-19 patients, of whom 156 (59.2%) were females and 204 (77.3%) had been vaccinated. The overall prevalence of post-COVID-19 syndrome was 48.5%. The most common symptom was fatigue (71, 26.9%), followed by joint pain (44, 16.7%). The other symptoms included loss of taste/smell (34, 12.9%), cough (32, 12.1%), palpitation (25, 9.5%), and hair loss (27, 10.2%). Unvaccinated patients showed a higher incidence of fatigue (p = 0.03) and loss of smell/taste (p = 0.01) on univariate analysis. Females were at high risk for the development of various symptoms, including fatigue, muscular pain, breathing difficulty, cough, chest pain, palpitation, headache, and hair loss. Multivariate analysis showed that female gender is a significant independent predictor (odds ratio: 3.1; p = 0.00) for the development of post-COVID-19 syndrome. Conclusions: The prevalence of post-COVID-19 syndrome among the Omani population was high, highlighting the need for targeted interventions to manage long-term symptoms in vulnerable groups.

1. Introduction

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is the main etiological agent for the spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), and has caused significant morbidity and mortality in different rates globally [1]. Data suggested that both the sub-acute and long-term effects of COVID-19 or post-COVID-19 syndrome have a significant impact on multiple organs [2]. According to the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines, the clinical categorizations for COVID-19 are defined as follows: acute COVID-19, characterized by symptoms that persist for up to four weeks; ongoing symptomatic COVID-19, where symptoms extend from 4 to 12 weeks; and post-COVID-19 syndrome, identified by symptoms that develop during or after an infection, continue for more than 12 weeks, and cannot be attributed to any other medical condition [3].
Previous reports highlighted that the long-term consequences of the SARS-CoV-2 infection include mild symptoms such as fatigue, shortness of breath, chest pain, cognitive decline, impaired quality of life, or severe conditions leading to renal failure, cardiac dysfunction, and stroke [4,5,6]. The exact pathological mechanism for the development of post-COVID-19 syndrome is still unknown. Cellular damage, exaggerated innate immune reactions with the release of inflammatory cytokines, and a pro-coagulant state provoked by SARS-CoV-2 infection are the cardinal factors for these conditions [7,8,9]. In addition, the complex nature of post-COVID-19 syndrome is further worsened due to viral tropism, defined as the navigation of the viral cells through the ACE2 receptor, which is broadly expressed on the cell surface, and thus affects the numerous organs [10]. This long-term sequence and the series of persistent symptoms were already reported in previous pandemic events, namely SARS in 2003 and the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) outbreak in 2012, thus highlighting post-COVID-19 syndrome as a significant public health concern.
The incidence of post-COVID-19 syndrome ranged between 10 and 35%, while for admitted cases, the range exceeded 85% [11,12]. The most common symptoms include fatigue, respiratory distress, chest discomfort, mental disorders, and olfactory disturbances [13]. There is a high prevalence of post-COVID-19 olfactory disturbances, which are common in 60% of the patients affected by the SARS-CoV-2 infection [14]. The important predictors of post-COVID-19 syndrome include older age, female gender, number of comorbidities, and the severity of the acute COVID-19 illness [15,16]. Additionally, sociodemographic profiles have been shown to significantly influence post-COVID-19 symptomatology [17]. Recent evidence also highlights the role of serological markers as predictors of long COVID. For instance, a large prospective study demonstrated that higher levels of anti-S antibodies were associated with an increased risk and severity of long COVID symptoms, underscoring the importance of immune response markers [18]. Moreover, this study reaffirmed that the severity of the acute disease phase remains the strongest predictor of long COVID outcomes. These findings suggest that both clinical and immunological profiles should be considered when assessing risk for post-COVID sequelae.
Globally, many studies have been reported on the post-COVID-19 syndrome; however, the data related to Middle East countries, specifically Oman, is limited. A cross-sectional study conducted in Saudi Arabia revealed that 85.3% of patients have general symptoms such as fatigue, 41.3% have respiratory symptoms, and 61.3% have neuropsychiatric symptoms [19]. In a recent study conducted in Oman, the most common post-COVID-19 symptoms were fatigue in 71.8%, cough in 64.7%, and fever in 8.3% of the patients, respectively [20].
In this backdrop, the present study was conducted to study the prevalence and characteristics of post-COVID-19 syndrome in patients in Oman at the University Health Center, SQUH.
Recognizing and addressing post-COVID-19 syndrome is essential for improving long-term health outcomes. While previous research has explored this topic, the present study provides a more detailed and comprehensive understanding of the syndrome, offering important insights into its prevalence and clinical characteristics in the Omani population.

2. Methods

This was a cross-sectional study conducted at the University Hospital Center (UHC). All adult patients (aged > 18 years) diagnosed with COVID-19 (through PCR testing) between March 2020 and March 2022 were included. Eligible patients were called by well-trained co-investigators and invited to participate via a telephone call. Verbal consent was obtained from those who agreed to participate. The reason for a decline to participate was also being recorded. Those who agreed to participate in the study were explained about the study. The consecutive sampling method was utilized and the sample size was determined using openEpi software Version 3.01 (2013), guided by parameters derived from literature, specifically a 60% expected prevalence [14], 4% precision, and a 95% confidence interval for a population size of 400. With these inputs, our analysis revealed the necessity of enrolling a minimum of 237 patients to ensure statistically significant findings.

3. Statistical Analysis

Categorical data are shown as numbers and percentages, while continuous data were reported as mean ± SD. Chi-square test analysis was performed to predict the factors associated with the progression of post-COVID-19 syndrome. Multivariate-adjusted logistic regression analyses was performed to identify the determinants for post-COVID-19 symptoms. A p-value < 0.05 was considered as statistically significant. Statistical software (SPSS, version 23) was used for data analysis.

4. Results

4.1. Patients Characteristics

Out of the 400 eligible participants, 265 agreed to participate, whereas 135 declined. The reasons for declining were a lack of time, and a few cases refused to provide their personal information. Female gender was observed in 156 (59.2%), and 108 (40.8%) were males. The mean age of the study population was 37.54 ± 9.05 years, ranging from 20 to 75 years. More than two thirds (77.3%) of the participants were vaccinated with COVID-19 vaccine. Only two patients required hospitalization, of whom one received oxygen therapy via a face mask, and the other required non-invasive ventilation and was admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU). The baseline demographic data of the patients are depicted in Table 1.

4.2. Prevalence and Patterns of Post-COVID-19 Symptoms

In the present study, the overall prevalence of post-COVID-19 symptoms was 48.5%, in which the patients exhibited enduring symptoms, and among those with symptoms, more than half reported experiencing three or more. General systemic manifestations represent the most common symptoms (57.3%), including fatigue, joint pain, and muscular pain. Fatigue was the most prevalent symptom in the post-COVID-19 period, corresponding to 26.9%.
Neuropsychiatric symptoms (52%) were the second most common persistent symptoms, with loss of taste or smell (12.9%) representing the most common neuropsychiatric symptom, followed by sleep disturbance (11.4%) and new-onset low mood (11%).
In the sample analyzed, 21.6% of patients suffered persistent symptoms related to the respiratory system, making it the third most common set of symptoms. The primary respiratory symptom was a persistent cough (12.1%), followed by breathing difficulty (9.5%).
Cardiovascular symptoms (17.5%) were the fourth most common persistent symptoms, with palpitation (9.5%) representing the most common cardiovascular symptom, followed by chest pain (8%).
Among dermatological symptoms, hair loss was frequently reported, and accounted for 12.1% of cases. Gastrointestinal symptoms, including diarrhea represent the least common symptom among all post-COVID-19 symptoms (1.1%). Table 2 illustrates the prevalence rate of post-COVID-19 symptoms.
Univariate analysis between demographic characteristics and post-COVID-19 symptoms is shown in Table 3. The analysis revealed that fatigue (p = 0.03) and loss of smell and taste (p = 0.01) had a significant association with vaccination status, and the prevalence was higher in unvaccinated patients. Meanwhile, age categories showed no significant association with the development of post-COVID-19 symptoms, but the age category of 31–40 years constitutes a higher number of patients with symptoms. Interestingly, the incidence of fatigue (p = 0.003), muscular pain (p = 0.009), breathing difficulty (p = 0.00), cough (p = 0.002), chest pain (p = 0.00), palpitation (p = 0.002), headache (p = 0.015), and hair loss (p = 0.001) was significantly higher in females as compared to males.
However, in multivariate analysis, vaccination status (p = 0.06) had not shown significant association with the development of post-COVID-19 syndrome. Meanwhile, female gender was a significant risk factor and they were three times more likely to develop post-COVID-19 symptoms (p = 0.00). The results are shown in Table 4.

5. Discussion

In the present study, the prevalence of post-COVID-19 syndrome in the Omani population is estimated to be 48.5%, and nearly half of the population experiences one or more symptoms. Our findings are comparable to the global data, with an empirical prevalence rate of 43%, and the rate is higher in hospitalized patients when compared to non-hospitalized cases (54% vs. 34%) [21].
Our findings are consistent with studies from the Middle East; however, it is important to note that our cohort consisted almost exclusively of patients with mild acute COVID-19. In comparison, a web-based cross-sectional study from Saudi Arabia reported a 34% prevalence of long COVID-19, though this included patients across the disease severity spectrum [22]. Similarly, a retrospective study from Saudi Arabia reported a 45% prevalence of post-COVID-19 syndrome without specifying the severity distribution [23]. This highlights the need for more studies focusing specifically on post-COVID-19 outcomes in individuals with mild disease to enable more accurate comparisons.
Likewise, in a recent study conducted in Oman [20], the prevalence rate was 39.7%, but it was comparatively low when compared to our data. Our data is in corroboration with western studies; in a prospective cohort study conducted in Russia, the prevalence of post-COVID-19 symptoms was 50% in adults and 20% in children [24]. The reason for the variable prevalence rates among different studies might be ascribed to the cultural background of the study population, where symptoms like fatigue are mostly not disclosed and different methodologies are used. These findings highlight the varied nature of post-COVID-19 syndrome and underline the importance of demographic considerations in understanding their occurrence.
Long COVID-19 was explained by a range of statements during the course of the pandemic. In the initial studies, symptoms persisting for more than 4 weeks were considered [25], but later findings revealed symptoms that lasted beyond one year [26]. Our study showed a prevalence of general symptoms in 57.3% of the patients, and the most common symptom was fatigue in 26.9% and joint pain in 16.7% of the patients. Previous findings showed that fatigue is the most common symptomatic feature of post-COVID-19 syndrome, ranging from 17.5% to even higher (60.3–72%) in hospitalized patients admitted to wards or the ICU [27,28]. Currently, there is no specific method for the diagnosis of fatigue, so it is important to rule out any disorders with similar symptoms. Fatigue is one of common symptoms in various pathological conditions such as endocrine disorders, alterations in the immune system, infections, and neurological disorders. In a recent meta-analysis, based on the studies related to post-COVID-19 syndrome, which included 9756 patients, the prevalence of joint pain ranged between 10 and 19% [29], which is consistent with the current findings. In another 11 studies, including 28,303 patients, the prevalence of joint pain was in the range of 20–29% [29]. The present study also observed post-COVID-19 neuropsychiatric symptoms in 52% of the patients, with loss of smell and taste in 12.9% of the patients. Loss of olfactory and gustatory function is one of the long-term manifestations of COVID-19, and it may last for up to 6 months in 11% and 9% of the patients, respectively [30]. In the present study, 21.6% suffered persistent respiratory symptoms and the most common feature was a cough in 12.1% of the patients. Existing data showed that a persistent cough is observed for weeks to many months after COVID-19 in some cases, with varying severity [31]. The finding of the present study is in parallel with a previous study conducted on the Omani population showed a similar pattern, with persistent cough in 14.5% and shortness of breath in 14.5% of the patients [20]. In a pooled analysis based on 14 studies, the prevalence of cough in hospitalized patients is estimated to be 18% [32]. The cardiovascular symptoms in the present study are 17.5%, with palpitation and chest pain in 9.5% and 8% of the patients, respectively. In a similar study conducted among Omani patients, the incidence of chest pain in non-ICU patients was 14.9%, while in ICU patients, it was reported at 20.8% [20]. The lower rate in the present study might be attributed to the overall milder severity of COVID-19. The important dermatological manifestation observed in the present study was hair loss in 10.2% of the patients. A meta-analysis study based on 15 studies on long-term COVID-19 reported hair loss symptoms in 25% of the patients [33]. In another study conducted in Egypt, the prevalence of post-COVID-19 hair problems was estimated to be 29.6%, and 18.6% of the patients reported hair loss after 2–3 months of infection [34].
In the present study, a significant association between fatigue and vaccination status was found in univariate analysis. The proportion of fatigue (38.3% vs. 23.5%) and loss of smell and taste (23.3% vs. 9.8%) was higher in unvaccinated patients as compared to vaccinated ones (p = 0.03). In a study conducted in the UK, the worsening of post-COVID-19 symptoms, including fatigue, was higher in unvaccinated patients as compared to vaccinated cases (14.3% vs. 5.6%) [35]. Similarly, in a prospective cohort study conducted in Switzerland, single-dose or two-doses vaccination reduced the prevalence of six cardinal post-COVID-19 symptoms, including loss of smell and taste [36]. However, multivariate analysis for vaccination status (vaccinated patients) showed no significant variations in the proportion of patients for the presence or absence of post-COVID-19 symptoms which is in line with the Korean study, where COVID-19 (one or more than one dose) has no significant difference on the progression of various post-COVID-19 symptoms, including fatigue, insomnia, and amnesia [37].
In the present study, female gender is a significant risk factor for the development of post-COVID-19 symptoms. The incidence of fatigue, muscular pain, breathing difficulty, cough, chest pain, palpitation, headache, and hair loss was significantly higher in females as compared to males. Our results are in line with the multicenter study conducted in Spain, in which females reported a higher proportion of post-COVID-19 symptoms, including fatigue, dyspnea, pain symptoms, ocular problems, and hair loss when compared with males [38]. In addition, a higher proportion of females had ≥ three post-COVID-19 symptoms when compared with males (43.9% vs. 23.25%; p = 0.001) [38]. Additionally, the multivariate analysis revealed that females are at higher risk (three times) for the development of post-COVID-19 symptoms than males. Our results are consistent with the data of Italian cohorts, where the female gender is at 3.3 times higher risk for the post-COVID-19 symptoms than males [39]. In another longitudinal study conducted in Turkey, females are at a 1.77 times higher risk for the progression of post-COVID-19 syndrome [40].

5.1. Limitations

There are some limitations to our study. This study was conducted based on the patients’ self-declaration. Also, there might be variations in how patients interpret, communicate, or express their symptoms. Furthermore, some of the information may not be remembered due to the retrospective nature of our study, which might subject our study to recall bias. Also, the study was carried out in a single center, impeding the generalizability of our findings. Most participants had the same severity of disease, as most of them had mild COVID-19 and no medical intervention was needed. Another limitation is the absence of key baseline characteristics in our study, including comorbidities, occupational and income status, symptoms during the acute phase of COVID-19, COVID-19 variant, and the treatments administered. Moreover, our study is the lack of assessment of the time interval between vaccination and acute infection, which—due to the cross-sectional design—restricts our ability to explore temporal relationships and understand the dynamics of waning immunity over time. Finally, an important limitation of this study is the inability to determine the time interval between the clinic visit and the follow-up call, which precluded conducting a subgroup analysis based on time-related variations.

5.2. Recommendations

Future longitudinal large cohort multicenter studies are warranted for the detailed understanding of post-COVID-19 syndrome. In addition, long-term follow-up studies are required to observe the pattern and severity of symptoms. Intervention trials are required to delineate the accurate treatment for post-COVID-19 symptoms involving probable pharmacological agents, rehabilitation and lifestyle modifications therapies.

6. Conclusions

In conclusion, our study highlights the high prevalence of post-COVID-19 syndrome in Omani patients. The present study delineates the significant prevalence of various symptoms, with fatigue being the most commonly reported symptom. There is an imperative need for established protocols for the monitoring and management of populations at high risk. Health care professionals should remain alert to the manifestations of post-COVID-19 syndrome.

Author Contributions

R.A.A. (Reem Ali Alhabsi), A.A.A., R.A.M.K., R.A.A. (Reham Ali Alhabsi), M.H.A.K. and A.A.M.; Methodology, R.A.A. (Reem Ali Alhabsi), A.A.A., M.H.A.K. and A.A.M.; Formal analysis, R.A.A. (Reem Ali Alhabsi), A.A.A. and M.H.A.K.; Investigation, R.A.M.K. and R.A.A. (Reham Ali Alhabsi); Data curation, R.A.A. (Reem Ali Alhabsi), R.A.M.K. and R.A.A. (Reham Ali Alhabsi); Writing–original draft, R.A.A. (Reem Ali Alhabsi), A.A.A. and M.H.A.K.; Writing–review & editing, A.A.A., R.A.M.K., R.A.A. (Reham Ali Alhabsi), M.H.A.K. and A.A.M.; Supervision, M.H.A.K. and A.A.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by Medical Research Ethics Committee (MREC) of College of Medicine & Health Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University (MREC# 2961, 1 March 2023).

Informed Consent Statement

Verbal informed consent was obtained from the participants. The rationale for utilizing verbal consent was that the interviews were conducted by phone.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author, subject to privacy considerations.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Dong, E.; Du, H.; Gardner, L. An interactive web-based dashboard to track COVID-19 in real time. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2020, 20, 533–534. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Kopańska, M.; Barnaś, E.; Błajda, J.; Kuduk, B.; Łagowska, A.; Banaś-Ząbczyk, A. Effects of SARS-CoV-2 Inflammation on Selected Organ Systems of the Human Body. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 4178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. NICE Guidelines. COVID-19 Rapid Guideline: Managing the Long-Term Effects of COVID-19. NICE Guidelines, 18 December 2020; pp. 1–35. Available online: www.nice.org.uk (accessed on 1 December 2021).
  4. Tenforde, M.W.; Kim, S.S.; Lindsell, C.J.; Billig Rose, E.; Shapiro, N.I.; Files, D.C.; Gibbs, K.W.; Erickson, H.L.; Steingrub, J.S.; Smithline, H.A.; et al. Symptom Duration and Risk Factors for Delayed Return to Usual Health Among Outpatients with COVID-19 in a Multistate Health Care Systems Network—United States, March–June 2020. MMWR. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2020, 69, 993–998. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Kamal, M.; Abo Omirah, M.; Hussein, A.; Saeed, H. Assessment and characterisation of post-COVID-19 manifestations. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 2021, 75, e13746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Abdelrahman, M.M.; Abd-Elrahman, N.M.; Bakheet, T.M. Persistence of symptoms after improvement of acute COVID19 infection, a longitudinal study. J. Med. Virol. 2021, 93, 5942–5946. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Low, R.N.; Low, R.J.; Akrami, A. A review of cytokine-based pathophysiology of Long COVID symptoms. Front. Med. 2023, 10, 1011936. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Ranucci, M.; Baryshnikova, E.; Anguissola, M.; Pugliese, S.; Falco, M.; Menicanti, L. The Long Term Residual Effects of COVID-Associated Coagulopathy. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 5514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  9. Mohan, A.; Iyer, V.A.; Kumar, D.; Batra, L.; Dahiya, P. Navigating the Post-COVID-19 Immunological Era: Understanding Long COVID-19 and Immune Response. Life 2023, 13, 2121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  10. Chen, L.; Li, X.; Chen, M.; Feng, Y.; Xiong, C. The ACE2 expression in human heart indicates new potential mechanism of heart injury among patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. Cardiovasc. Res. 2020, 116, 1097–1100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Pavli, A.; Theodoridou, M.; Maltezou, H.C. Post-COVID Syndrome: Incidence, Clinical Spectrum, and Challenges for Primary Healthcare Professionals. Arch. Med. Res. 2021, 52, 575–581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Greenhalgh, T.; Knight, M.; A’Court, C.; Buxton, M.; Husain, L. Management of post-acute covid-19 in primary care. BMJ Clin. Res. Ed. 2020, 370, m3026. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Le Bon, S.-D.; Pisarski, N.; Verbeke, J.; Prunier, L.; Cavelier, G.; Thill, M.-P.; Rodriguez, A.; Dequanter, D.; Lechien, J.R.; Le Bon, O.; et al. Psychophysical evaluation of chemosensory functions 5 weeks after olfactory loss due to COVID-19: A prospective cohort study on 72 patients. Eur. Arch. Oto-Rhino-Laryngol. 2021, 278, 101–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Addison, A.B.; Wong, B.; Ahmed, T.; Macchi, A.; Konstantinidis, I.; Huart, C.; Frasnelli, J.; Fjaeldstad, A.W.; Ramakrishnan, V.R.; Rombaux, P.; et al. Clinical Olfactory Working Group consensus statement on the treatment of postinfectious olfactory dysfunction. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2021, 147, 1704–1719. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Thompson, E.J.; Williams, D.M.K.; Walker, A.J.; Mitchell, R.E.; Niedzwiedz, C.L.; Yang, T.C.; Huggins, C.F.; Kwong, A.S.F.; Silverwood, R.J.; Di Gessa, G.; et al. Long COVID burden and risk factors in 10 UK longitudinal studies and electronic health records. Nat. Commun. 2022, 13, 3528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Tsampasian, V.; Elghazaly, H.; Chattopadhyay, R.; Debski, M.; Naing, T.K.P.; Garg, P.; Clark, A.; Ntatsaki, E.; Vassiliou, V.S. Risk Factors Associated with Post−COVID-19 Condition. JAMA Intern. Med. 2023, 183, 566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Mahmoodi, Z.; Bahrami, G.; Shahrestanaki, E.; Seddighi, H.; Ghavidel, N. Clinical and Socio-Demographic Variables Associated with Long COVID-19: A Cross-Sectional Study. Clin. Nurs. Res. 2023, 32, 947–953. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Freund, O.; Breslavsky, A.; Fried, S.; Givoli-Vilensky, R.; Cohen-Rubin, S.; Zacks, N.; Kleinhendler, E.; Unterman, A.; Frydman, S.; Wand, O.; et al. Interactions and clinical implications of serological and respiratory variables 3 months after acute COVID-19. Clin. Exp. Med. 2023, 23, 3729–3736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  19. Mahmoud, M.H.; Alghamdi, F.A.; Alghamdi, G.A.; Alkhotani, L.A.; Alrehaili, M.A.; El-Deeb, D.K. Study of Post-COVID-19 Syndrome in Saudi Arabia. Cureus 2021, 13, e17787. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Al Jahdhami, I.; Arshad, H.; Omar, H.; Bennji, S.M.; Al Nomani, K.; Al Ghafri, M.; Al Syabi, M.; Al Hinai, S.; Al Mawali, A. Persistence of Symptoms Following Hospitalization for COVID-19 in Oman: A Bidirectional Observational Study. Oman Med. J. 2023, 38, e570. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  21. Chen, C.; Haupert, S.R.; Zimmermann, L.; Shi, X.; Fritsche, L.G.; Mukherjee, B. Global Prevalence of Post-Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Condition or Long COVID: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review. J. Infect. Dis. 2022, 226, 1593–1607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. Samannodi, M.; Alwafi, H.; Naser, A.Y.; Al Qurashi, A.A.; Qedair, J.T.; Salawati, E.; Almatrafi, M.A.; Ekram, R.; Bukhari, R.I.; Dahlawi, M.; et al. Determinants of Post-COVID-19 Conditions among SARS-CoV-2-Infected Patients in Saudi Arabia: A Web-Based Cross-Sectional Study. Diseases 2022, 10, 55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Alghamdi, S.A.; Alfares, M.A.; Alsulami, R.A.; Alghamdi, A.F.; Almalawi, A.M.; Alghamdi, M.S.; Hazazi, H.A. Post-COVID-19 Syndrome: Incidence, Risk Factor, and the Most Common Persisting Symptoms. Cureus 2022, 4, e32058. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Pazukhina, E.; Andreeva, M.; Spiridonova, E.; Bobkova, P.; Shikhaleva, A.; El-Taravi, Y.; Rumyantsev, M.; Gamirova, A.; Bairashevskaia, A.; Petrova, P.; et al. Prevalence and risk factors of post-COVID-19 condition in adults and children at 6 and 12 months after hospital discharge: A prospective, cohort study in Moscow (StopCOVID). BMC Med. 2022, 20, 244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Sudre, C.H.; Murray, B.; Varsavsky, T.; Graham, M.S.; Penfold, R.S.; Bowyer, R.C.; Pujol, J.C.; Klaser, K.; Antonelli, M.; Canas, L.S.; et al. Attributes and predictors of long COVID. Nat. Med. 2021, 27, 626–631. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Seeßle, J.; Waterboer, T.; Hippchen, T.; Simon, J.; Kirchner, M.; Lim, A.; Müller, B.; Merle, U. Persistent Symptoms in Adult Patients 1 Year After Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Prospective Cohort Study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2022, 74, 1191–1198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  27. Liang, L.; Yang, B.; Jiang, N.; Fu, W.; He, X.; Zhou, Y.; Ma, W.L.; Wang, X. Three-month Follow-up Study of Survivors of Coronavirus Disease 2019 after Discharge. J. Korean Med. Sci. 2020, 35, e418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  28. Davis, H.E.; Assaf, G.S.; McCorkell, L.; Wei, H.; Low, R.J.; Re’em, Y.; Redfield, S.; Austin, J.P.; Akrami, A. Characterizing long COVID in an international cohort: 7 months of symptoms and their impact. eClinicalMedicine 2021, 38, 101019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  29. Ciaffi, J.; Vanni, E.; Mancarella, L.; Brusi, V.; Lisi, L.; Pignatti, F.; Naldi, S.; Assirelli, E.; Neri, S.; Reta, M.; et al. Post-Acute COVID-19 Joint Pain and New Onset of Rheumatic Musculoskeletal Diseases: A Systematic Review. Diagnostics 2023, 13, 1850. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  30. Carfì, A.; Bernabei, R.; Landi, F. Persistent Symptoms in Patients After Acute COVID-19. JAMA 2020, 324, 603. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  31. Guler, S.A.; Ebner, L.; Aubry-Beigelman, C.; Bridevaux, P.-O.; Brutsche, M.; Clarenbach, C.; Garzoni, C.; Geiser, T.K.; Lenoir, A.; Mancinetti, M.; et al. Pulmonary function and radiological features 4 months after COVID-19: First results from the national prospective observational Swiss COVID-19 lung study. Eur. Respir. J. 2021, 57, 2003690. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Song, W.-J.; Hui, C.K.M.; Hull, J.H.; Birring, S.S.; McGarvey, L.; Mazzone, S.B.; Chung, K.F. Confronting COVID-19-associated cough and the post-COVID syndrome: Role of viral neurotropism, neuroinflammation, and neuroimmune responses. Lancet Respir. Med. 2021, 9, 533–544. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Lopez-Leon, S.; Wegman-Ostrosky, T.; Perelman, C.; Sepulveda, R.; Rebolledo, P.A.; Cuapio, A.; Villapol, S. More than 50 long-term effects of COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci. Rep. 2021, 11, 16144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Awad, N.E.H.A.; Obaid, Z.M.; Zaky, M.S.; Elsaie, M.L. Hair disorders associated with post-COVID-19 infection in females: A cross-sectional study. Ir. J. Med. Sci. 2024, 193, 761–767. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Arnold, D.; Milne, A.; Samms, E.; Stadon, L.; Maskell, N.; Hamilton, F. Are Vaccines Safe in Patients with Long COVID? A Prospective Observational Study. MedRxiv 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Nehme, M.; Braillard, O.; Salamun, J.; Jacquerioz, F.; Courvoisier, D.S.; Spechbach, H.; Guessous, I. Symptoms After COVID-19 Vaccination in Patients with Post-Acute Sequelae of SARS-CoV-2. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 2022, 37, 1585–1588. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Kim, Y.; Bae, S.; Chang, H.-H.; Kim, S.-W. Characteristics of long COVID and the impact of COVID-19 vaccination on long COVID 2 years following COVID-19 infection: Prospective cohort study. Sci. Rep. 2024, 14, 854. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Fernández-de-Las-Peñas, C.; Martín-Guerrero, J.D.; Pellicer-Valero, Ó.J.; Navarro-Pardo, E.; Gómez-Mayordomo, V.; Cuadrado, M.L.; Arias-Navalón, J.A.; Cigarán-Méndez, M.; Hernández-Barrera, V.; Arendt-Nielsen, L. Female Sex Is a Risk Factor Associated with Long-Term Post-COVID Related-Symptoms but Not with COVID-19 Symptoms: The LONG-COVID-EXP-CM Multicenter Study. J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11, 413. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Bai, F.; Tomasoni, D.; Falcinella, C.; Barbanotti, D.; Castoldi, R.; Mulè, G.; Augello, M.; Mondatore, D.; Allegrini, M.; Cona, A.; et al. Female gender is associated with long COVID syndrome: A prospective cohort study. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2022, 28, e9–e611. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Emecen, A.N.; Keskin, S.; Turunc, O.; Suner, A.F.; Siyve, N.; Basoglu Sensoy, E.; Dinc, F.; Kilinc, O.; Avkan Oguz, V.; Bayrak, S.; et al. The presence of symptoms within 6 months after COVID-19: A single-center longitudinal study. Ir. J. Med. Sci. 2023, 192, 741–750. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Table 1. Demographics and clinical characteristic of the study participants with COVID-19 (n = 265).
Table 1. Demographics and clinical characteristic of the study participants with COVID-19 (n = 265).
ParametersFrequency (%), n = 265
Mean age in years (mean ± SD)37.54 ± 9.05
Gender
Females156 (59.2%)
Males108 (40.8%)
Admission required during COVID2 (0.8%)
Oxygen therapy required1 (0.7%)
Non-invasive ventilation required1 (0.7%)
ICU admission1 (0.7%)
Received COVID-19 vaccination204 (77.3%)
Table 2. Prevalence rate and patterns of post-COVID-19 symptoms.
Table 2. Prevalence rate and patterns of post-COVID-19 symptoms.
SymptomsFrequency (%), n = 265
General symptoms (57.3%)
Fatigue71 (26.9%)
Joint pain44 (16.7%)
Muscular pain37 (14%)
Neuropsychiatric symptoms (52%)
Loss of taste/smell34 (12.9%)
Sleep disturbances30 (11.4%)
Low mood29 (11%)
Headache24 (9.1%)
Increase in worrying thoughts20 (7.6%)
Respiratory symptoms (21.6%)
Cough32 (12.1%)
Breathing difficulty25 (9.5%)
Cardiovascular symptoms (17.5%)
Palpitation25 (9.5%)
Chest pain21 (8%)
Dermatological symptoms (12.1%)
Hair loss27 (10.2%)
Skin rash5 (1.9%)
Gastrointestinal symptoms
Diarrhea3 (1.1%)
Table 3. Association between post-COVID-19 symptoms and demographic profiles.
Table 3. Association between post-COVID-19 symptoms and demographic profiles.
SymptomsVaccination StatusAge CategoriesGender
YesNop-Value<=3031–4041–50>50p-ValueMaleFemalep-Value
Fatigue, n (%)48 (23.5%) 23 (38.3%)0.03 *14 (25.9%)33 (26.4%)18 (31.6%)6 (23.1%)0.83 NS18 (16.8%)52 (33.5%)0.003 *
Joint pain, n (%)29 (14.2%)15 (25%)0.07 NS10 (18.5%)19 (15.2%)10 (17.5%)15 (19.2%)0.92 NS12 (11.2%)32 (20.6%)0.06 NS
Muscular pain, n (%)26 (12.7%)11 (18.3%)0.29 NS10 (18.5%)12 (9.6%)12 (21.1%)3 (11.5%)0.15 NS4 (3.7%)32 (20.6%)0.00 *
Breathing difficulty, n (%)18 (8.8%)7 (11.7%)0.46 NS4 (7.4%)13 (10.4%)6 (10.5%)2 (7.7%)0.90 NS4 (3.7%)21 (13.5%)0.009 *
Cough, n (%)27 (13.2%)5(8.3%)0.37 NS7 (13%)15 (12%)5 (8.8%)5 (19.2%)0.60 NS5 (4.7%)27 (17.4%)0.002 *
Chest pain, n (%)15 (7.4%)6 (10%)0.58 NS4 (7.4%)9 (7.2%)6 (10.5%)2 (7.7%)0.90 NS1 (0.9%)20 (12.9%)0.00 *
Palpitation, n (%)18 (8.8%)7 (11.7%)0.46 NS5 (9.3%)11 (8.8%)7 (12.3%)2 (7.7%)0.88 NS3 (2.8%)22 (14.2%)0.002 *
Increase in worrying thoughts, n (%)16 (7.8%)4 (6.7%)1.00 NS3 (5.6%)9 (7.2%)5 (8.8%)3 (11.5%)0.80 NS5 (4.7%)15 (9.7%)0.16 NS
Low mood, n (%)21 (10.3%)8 (13.3%)0.48 NS6 (11.1%)12 (9.6%)7 (12.3%)4 (15.4%)0.84 NS8 (7.5%)21 (13.5%)0.161 NS
Sleep disturbances, n (%)23 (11.3%)7 (11.7%)1.00 NS7 (13%)10 (8%)7 (12.3%)6 (23.1%)0.17 NS10 (9.3%)20 (12.9%)0.433 NS
Loss of taste/smell, n (%)20 (9.8%)14 (23.3%)0.014 *9 (16.7%)13 (10.4%)7 (12.3%)4 (15.4%)0.67 NS10 (9.3%)23 (14.8%)0.256 NS
Headache, n (%)18 (8.8%)6 (10%)0.80 NS2 (3.7%)13 (10.4%)6 (10.5%)3 (11.5%)0.40 NS4 (3.7%)20 (12.9%)0.015 *
Diarrhea, n (%)3 (1.5%)0 (0%)1.00 NS1 (1.9%)1 (0.8%)1 (1.8%)0 (0%)0.78 NS2 (1.9%)1 (0.6%)0.57 NS
Hair loss, n (%)21 (10.3%)6 (10%)1.00 NS6(11.1%)14 (11.2%)5 (8.8%)2 (7.7%)0.92 NS3 (2.8%)24 (15.5%)0.001 *
Skin rash, n (%)4 (2%)1 (1.7%)1.00 NS01 (0.8%)2 (3.5%)2 (7.7%)0.09 NS0 (0%)5 (3.2%)0.081 NS
* Denotes significant (p < 0.05); NS—non-significant.
Table 4. Multivariate logistic regression analysis for the predictors of post-COVID-19 symptoms.
Table 4. Multivariate logistic regression analysis for the predictors of post-COVID-19 symptoms.
VariablesPost-COVID-19 Symptomsp-ValueOdd Ratio95% CI
PresentAbsent
Age, mean37.337.80.63 NS
Gender, female sex, n (%)63 (71.9)92 (47.0)0.00 *3.11.8–5.2
Vaccination status (vaccinated)95 (46.6%)109 (53.4%)0.06 NS
* Denotes significant (p < 0.05); NS—non-significant.
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Alhabsi, R.A.; Almukhladi, A.A.; Kadhim, R.A.M.; Alhabsi, R.A.; Al Kiyumi, M.H.; Al Mahrezi, A. The Prevalence and Characteristics of Post-COVID-19 Syndrome Among Patients Attending the University Health Center in Muscat, Oman. J. Oman Med. Assoc. 2025, 2, 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/joma2020011

AMA Style

Alhabsi RA, Almukhladi AA, Kadhim RAM, Alhabsi RA, Al Kiyumi MH, Al Mahrezi A. The Prevalence and Characteristics of Post-COVID-19 Syndrome Among Patients Attending the University Health Center in Muscat, Oman. Journal of the Oman Medical Association. 2025; 2(2):11. https://doi.org/10.3390/joma2020011

Chicago/Turabian Style

Alhabsi, Reem Ali, Amani Abdullah Almukhladi, Rania Ali Mahdi Kadhim, Reham Ali Alhabsi, Maisa Hamed Al Kiyumi, and Abdulaziz Al Mahrezi. 2025. "The Prevalence and Characteristics of Post-COVID-19 Syndrome Among Patients Attending the University Health Center in Muscat, Oman" Journal of the Oman Medical Association 2, no. 2: 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/joma2020011

APA Style

Alhabsi, R. A., Almukhladi, A. A., Kadhim, R. A. M., Alhabsi, R. A., Al Kiyumi, M. H., & Al Mahrezi, A. (2025). The Prevalence and Characteristics of Post-COVID-19 Syndrome Among Patients Attending the University Health Center in Muscat, Oman. Journal of the Oman Medical Association, 2(2), 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/joma2020011

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop