Advancing Community-Based Education: Strategies, Challenges, and Future Directions for Scaling Impact in Higher Education

Abstract

Community-Based Education (CBE) is a transformative approach that integrates academic learning with practical problem-solving by engaging students in real-world community challenges. This study, grounded in a comprehensive literature review, first examines the distinctive characteristics of CBE relative to traditional pedagogical frameworks, exploring its application across varied educational contexts and the implementation challenges it faces. In particular, the research investigates the complexities of aligning community projects with established technical standards and overcoming institutional resistance while also assessing the effectiveness of CBE in cultivating socially responsible, career-ready graduates. To ensure that these findings are both relevant and practical, the study then incorporates validation from an expert review panel consisting of educators and administrators. These experts provided firsthand insights into the challenges they have encountered and shared potential strategies for addressing them, which in turn informed the development of a robust set of guidelines and recommendations. The recommendations underscore the importance of forging strong community partnerships, offering targeted faculty development opportunities, and maintaining curricular flexibility to effectively integrate real-world learning experiences. Ultimately, the study reinforces the pivotal role of CBE in preparing future leaders capable of making a positive impact at both local and global levels.

1. Introduction

Community-Based Education (CBE) is an educational approach that centers learning on real-world community challenges, fostering collaboration between students, educators, and community stakeholders [1,2]. Unlike traditional classroom-based learning, CBE prioritizes experiential learning through active community participation [3,4]. This allows students to apply theoretical knowledge to practical problems, leading to a deeper understanding of complex societal issues [3]. Figure 1 offers a simple illustration of the key principles of CBE. CBE is very closely associated with Community-Engaged Learning (CBL), as they often involve partnerships with local organizations and incorporate reflective practices to deepen understanding [4]. By linking academic learning with local challenges, both CBE and CBL cultivate civic responsibility, critical thinking, and social commitment among students [3,4,5]. However, while closely related, these approaches differ in scope. CBE encompasses a broad range of educational activities, including both formal and informal programs such as adult education and K-12 school initiatives that address local issues. In contrast, CBL is primarily integrated into formal academic courses, particularly in higher education, with a structured focus on community engagement [5].

The origins of CBE stem from efforts to make educational systems more responsive to local contexts and the diverse needs of learners. Today, its implementation varies greatly across regions and academic disciplines. In teacher education, for instance, community-based field experiences have been shown to deepen understanding of students’ capabilities and interests, promoting a more inclusive teaching approach [6,7,8,9]. This method encourages teachers to challenge traditional dichotomies such as school/community and teacher/student, which can limit their pedagogical viewpoints. In the realm of medical education, CBE has been leveraged to enhance experiential learning (i.e., service learning), providing students with opportunities to engage directly with real-world health challenges and build practical skills within community settings [10]. This type of experiential learning aligns closely with Kolb’s experiential learning theory, which emphasizes the importance of hands-on experience followed by reflective observation [10,11]. In engineering education, experiential learning, particularly when integrated with a project-based learning framework, serves as a foundational element of CBE. This approach allows engineering students to engage in hands-on projects that directly benefit local communities, fostering a sense of social responsibility and practical application of their technical knowledge. By working on real-world challenges, students not only enhance their engineering skills but also gain valuable insights into the complexities and nuances of community needs and dynamics (e.g., [12,13]). CBE is also rooted in social learning theories, which highlight the significance of social interactions in the learning process (e.g., [14]). For instance, the work of Westoby and Lyons demonstrates how community organizing and social movements can act as catalysts for transformative learning experiences [15]. This approach aligns with the concept of learning communities, where collaboration and shared experiences among learners foster deeper engagement and comprehension of the subject matter [16,17]. In this way, aligning educational practices with community needs not only improves learning outcomes but also supports social equity and inclusion.

CBE has been shown to be effective across different cultural and national contexts, with its design and implementation shaped by the distinct needs, values, and challenges of each community. It is widely recognized as a means to empower communities and enhance learners’ sense of belonging [18,19]. For instance, in Nepal, CBE initiatives at the Institute of Medicine, Tribhuvan University, prioritize fostering cultural humility and advancing social justice [20]. These programs have equipped medical students to address health promotion and disease prevention challenges specific to their communities, reflecting a deep understanding of local social dynamics. The literature also underscores the contextual differences in the implementation of CBE between rural and urban settings. In rural contexts, programs frequently address pressing local challenges such as healthcare access or education delivery. Local partnerships are critical in these scenarios, as demonstrated by studies highlighting their effectiveness in overcoming logistical barriers [21,22]. In contrast, urban CBE programs face distinct challenges such as high population density and diverse demographic needs. These programs often require tailored approaches to community engagement to navigate complexities surrounding social equity and inclusion.

The significance of CBE has expanded in recent years, with many US institutions of higher education emphasizing this approach to better equip students for the complexities of today’s world (e.g., see [23]). With global issues such as social inequity, environmental sustainability, and economic disparities becoming more prominent, the role of education in tackling these challenges has gained increased recognition, placing CBE at the forefront of these efforts. Additionally, advancements in digital technology have created new opportunities for virtual community engagement, enabling broader participation and access to CBE initiatives [24,25]. These developments have positioned CBE as a cornerstone of educational reforms that aim to promote holistic, context-aware learning. Despite its growing importance, there remains a need for a comprehensive evaluation of the current research and practices in CBE. While many studies highlight its benefits and potential through case studies, there is a lack of synthesis across the varied components that make up CBE. Understanding these elements—such as service learning, civic engagement, and culturally responsive teaching—is crucial for effectively implementing CBE across different contexts and disciplines. A thorough review can aid educators and policymakers in better understanding the strengths and limitations of current CBE practices, as well as identifying areas for future research and development. To this end, this study examined key applications of CBE in education, focusing on strategies that connect students with community issues and their outcomes. It explored opportunities for CBE’s growth and innovation while highlighting its transformative potential. The study also addressed challenges limiting its effectiveness and identified future research directions. To ensure the practical relevance of these findings, they were validated through a panel of experts comprising educators and administrators. These individuals recounted their direct experiences with these challenges—detailing if and how they encountered them—and offered potential strategies for overcoming them. Their insights were instrumental in shaping a set of comprehensive guidelines and recommendations for effectively integrating CBE into higher education. These recommendations emphasize the importance of building robust community partnerships, offering targeted faculty development opportunities, and maintaining curriculum flexibility to accommodate experiential learning. This integrated approach also uncovered several promising avenues for future research in CBE.

The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 details the research methodology used to identify key articles for the study. Section 3 explores the unique attributes of CBE derived from the literature review. Section 4 showcases prominent CBE initiatives widely implemented by researchers and educators. Section 5 discusses the main challenges hindering the large-scale adoption of CBE in education. Section 6 offers guidelines and recommendations to address these challenges after conducting a face validation and open-ended discussion with an expert panel. Section 7 highlights crucial research directions within the field. Finally, Section 8 concludes the study with a summary of key findings.

2. Research Methodology

The research methodology consists of two parts: review of the existing literature and expert validation. The review methodology was structured in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines without formal protocol registration [26,27]. A scoping/integrative review approach was adopted to identify, select, evaluate, and synthesize existing research, ensuring a transparent and methodical progression from the initial search to the final analysis. The review process began by setting clear objectives that were essential for defining the scope and direction of the study. These objectives included the following: (1) examining the effectiveness of CBE in higher education settings, such as undergraduate and graduate programs; (2) investigating strategies for integrating CBE into curricula beyond standalone courses; (3) exploring the long-term impacts of CBE on student outcomes; (4) assessing how digital tools and the shift to online education may reshape CBE practices; and (5) examining the potential for CBE to cultivate ethical, community-focused leadership. The authors developed a comprehensive search strategy to include studies relevant to the review’s objectives. Systematic searches were conducted across major academic databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, IEEE Xplore, ERIC, and Google Scholar. These databases were selected for their extensive coverage of education and interdisciplinary research. The search terms were designed to capture diverse aspects of CBE, using keywords such as “Community-Based Education”, “Service Learning”, “Curriculum Integration”, “Ethical Leadership”, and “Digital Education”. Boolean operators such as AND, OR, and NOT were applied to refine the search, enabling the inclusion of studies with overlapping terms. For instance, the search string “Community-Based Education AND Engineering AND Long-Term Impact” was employed to focus on research examining CBE’s prolonged effects in engineering contexts. Additionally, resources from Marshall University’s online catalogs and Marshall Digital Scholar were consulted to collect theses, dissertations, and other institutional scholarly outputs.

The study selection process involved several steps to ensure the inclusion of relevant and high-quality studies. Initially, reference management software, such as Mendeley, was used to identify and remove duplicate entries, thereby refining the dataset of potential articles. Subsequently, titles and abstracts were screened to assess their relevance to CBE. In the eligibility phase, full-text reviews were conducted on articles that passed the initial screening, extracting detailed information, including study design, sample size, key findings, research focus (e.g., curriculum design, digital tools, student leadership), and geographical context. Studies were excluded if they met any of the following criteria: inability to retrieve the full text, not being peer-reviewed, inappropriate research design (e.g., observational studies when randomized controlled trials were required), publication date outside the predefined timeframe (after the year 2000), or multiple publications reporting the same conclusions. Only studies meeting all established quality criteria were included in the synthesis, adhering to an all-or-nothing approach where failure to satisfy even one criterion resulted in exclusion. Thematic coding categories emerged organically via a bottom-up process. This approach entailed an exhaustive analysis of the data to uncover patterns and concepts without imposing predefined classifications, allowing themes to naturally surface. By systematically analyzing the content, similar ideas and findings were grouped, forming cohesive categories that accurately reflected the core topics within the literature. Moreover, through an iterative refinement process, initial themes were continuously revisited and adjusted as more data were analyzed, allowing the categories to evolve and accurately reflect the findings while maintaining clarity and precision. The approach also emphasized capturing overlaps between categories, such as the interplay between place-based education and integrating local knowledge, deliberately preserving the interconnected nature of CBE themes to capture the complexity of the data without oversimplification. Finally, comprehensive coverage was a priority, with the categories collectively encompassing all significant aspects of CBE—from its defining characteristics to its practical applications and associated challenges—ensuring no critical elements were overlooked. Figure 2 illustrates the sequential steps taken during the literature review process. Afterward, the challenges were validated by engaging a panel of experts comprising educators and administrators with direct experience in implementing and researching CBE. These experts provided insights into whether they had encountered the identified challenges in practice and offered strategies for addressing them. The validation process involved structured interviews and surveys, allowing for a deeper exploration of the real-world applicability of the literature-based findings. Their feedback was systematically analyzed and integrated into the study, ensuring that the conclusions were both theoretically grounded and practically relevant.

3. Uniqueness of CBE

This section will explore what sets CBE apart from traditional education models. It will examine how CBE’s focus on active collaboration with local communities leads to deeper engagement, fostering practical skills and social responsibility—elements that are often less emphasized in conventional, classroom-centered approaches.

3.1. Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice

CBE has demonstrated its capacity to effectively bridge the divide between theoretical knowledge and practical application, offering students opportunities to apply classroom concepts to real-world scenarios [28,29,30]. This experiential learning model enhances understanding and retention by making abstract concepts more tangible and directly relevant to everyday challenges. For instance, through community projects, students have been observed to gain hands-on experience that reinforces theoretical frameworks, creating a synergistic relationship between academic learning and practical application [31,32,33].

Research also highlights the role of CBE in fostering critical thinking skills that link theory and practice, a core competency often challenging to cultivate in traditional academic settings. For example, nursing students engaged in community-based learning environments reported significant gains in critical thinking as they practically applied theoretical knowledge [34]. Longerbeam [35] further emphasized that community engagement provides favorable conditions for developing critical thinking, showcasing how CBE creates immersive learning opportunities tailored to complex problem-solving scenarios. Moreover, CBE strengthens the learning process by fostering collaboration and communication between students and faculty, enhancing both critical thinking and problem-solving abilities [36,37]. It also significantly impacts student outcomes, with studies showing that participation in CBE increases motivation and engagement [1].

3.2. Integrating Local Knowledge

The integration of local knowledge into curricula has emerged as a critical strategy for fostering culturally relevant learning and empowering communities. Research highlights that the absence of this integration perpetuates dominant Western paradigms, potentially alienating students from their lived experiences and creating a disconnect between education and local realities [38,39]. CBE, with its emphasis on initiatives “by the community, for the community”, provides a framework for addressing this gap by linking educational content to local challenges and cultural contexts [40,41]. In essence, central to the success of CBE is the formation of meaningful community partnerships, which not only bring about positive transformations within communities but also deepen awareness of local issues among students [42]. Involving diverse community members, including mentors with intimate knowledge of local resources and cultural elements, enriches the learning experience by ensuring that educational content aligns with the community’s needs and traditions [43,44]. This thoughtful incorporation of local knowledge—described as a reconfiguration rather than a mere addition—has been shown to increase the relevance of education by reflecting community history and values.

CBE initiatives that emphasize integrating local knowledge into curricula can act as a catalyst for transformative learning, prompting students to reflect on their lived experiences and engage critically with the complex social issues affecting their communities. This reflective process nurtures a deeper understanding of students’ roles within their communities, cultivating a sense of agency, responsibility, and empowerment [45]. By integrating local knowledge, cultural context, and strong community partnerships, CBE presents a holistic approach to education. This approach not only addresses systemic inequities but also empowers students to make meaningful contributions to their communities, emphasizing the potential for education to drive both personal growth and societal progress. Existing research also underscores how the active involvement of local communities in the educational process significantly enhances students’ intrinsic motivation [46,47]. Intrinsically motivated students demonstrate authentic engagement with learning, as opposed to extrinsically motivated students, who often exhibit more superficial engagement [48]. This connection between motivation and relevance fosters active participation, as students are more likely to engage deeply with material that resonates with their personal and community experiences [49].

3.3. Promoting Inclusivity, Justice, and Sustainability

The existing literature emphasizes the crucial role of CBE in integrating social values and equity into educational frameworks. Scholars have highlighted that CBE transcends traditional education models by embedding core values such as gender equality and sustainable lifestyles directly into curricula, thus promoting social responsibility [50,51]. Moreover, numerous studies have stressed how CBE effectively addresses educational disparities by providing marginalized groups with vital resources and opportunities. This not only empowers them to contribute meaningfully to societal betterment but also strengthens community ties in ways often neglected in conventional educational settings [52,53]. Additionally, CBE prepares students to engage actively in sustainability initiatives, fostering a culture of mutual respect and collaboration. It also encourages democratic approaches to tackling sustainability challenges, reinforcing collective action and social responsibility. Through these multifaceted efforts, CBE is seen as a powerful tool for promoting inclusivity, social justice, and long-term sustainability, all while fostering a deeper sense of community involvement and responsibility among students.

4. Major CBE Initiatives

Existing literature indicates that researchers and educators have explored and implemented various types of CBE initiatives, highlighting the diverse approaches available within this framework. These initiatives reflect a commitment to connecting educational practices with community engagement, ensuring that learning is both relevant and impactful. Note that many of these initiatives are often overlapping, meaning researchers have often attempted to implement multiple initiatives together within their experimental designs and case studies due to their conceptual similarities. Overall, four major initiatives can be identified from existing literature: service learning, community-based research, place-based education, and online learning.

4.1. Service Learning

Service learning has emerged as a prominent component of CBE that combines academic learning with community service. It emphasizes experiential learning through active participation in projects that address community needs [54,55,56,57]. In fact, Bringle and Hatcher [58] contended that service learning is fundamental to the mission of higher education, as it engages both faculty and students in meaningful service activities that address community issues while enhancing educational outcomes. This approach not only enriches students’ learning experiences but also reinforces community connections and fosters civic engagement. Service learning has found applications in almost all educational domains, including engineering, medical science, teacher education, and many more. For example, Yazdani and Heidarpoor and [59] emphasized the value of service learning in medical education, demonstrating how such an approach created reciprocal relationships between universities and communities. This framework allowed medical students to collect and analyze data that directly informed community development, thus fostering greater social accountability, a component often missing in traditional medical curricula. Similarly, Forrester [60] illustrated how community engagement via service learning in music education enabled music teachers to build strong partnerships with schools and local organizations, highlighting the transformative role of the arts in community development and social change. This approach used artistic expression to raise awareness and strengthen community bonds. Recently, new models such as Critically Engaged Civic Learning (CECL) have been introduced, shifting service learning from a predominantly student-focused method to an equity-driven, community-centric framework [61]. CECL positions all stakeholders as co-designers, implementers, and evaluators of projects, emphasizing shared power and authority to foster civic engagement and social transformation. This form of learning bridges the gap between academic study and real-world application, fostering a reciprocal relationship between students and the communities they serve.

4.2. Community-Engaged Research (CER)

Community-Engaged Research (CER) is an umbrella term that encompasses various research approaches that actively involve community members in different capacities. It includes both Community-Based Research (CBR), which emphasizes collaboration but allows for varying levels of community involvement, and Community-Based Participatory Research (CBPR), which ensures full and equal participation at every stage. More specifically, CBR has emerged as a pivotal component of CBE, conducted in partnership with a community to address local issues and create meaningful change [62]. It emphasizes the active involvement of community members but does not necessarily require their participation in all stages of the research process. The role of community members in CBR can sometimes be limited, primarily to data collection or being subjects of research rather than partners in the research process [63]. This approach may lead to findings that do not fully represent community needs or priorities, as community voices might not be thoroughly integrated into all stages of research. On the other hand, CBPR, a form of CER, is characterized by a deeper level of collaboration and partnership between researchers and the community throughout the research process [64,65,66]. CBPR actively involves community members as co-researchers, facilitating a more equitable partnership [67,68]. In this model, the community plays a direct role in defining the research question, methodology, data analysis, and application of findings, ensuring that the research reflects the community’s specific needs and contexts. This participatory approach has demonstrated effectiveness in fostering trust and rapport between researchers and community stakeholders, ultimately leading to more impactful and actionable research outcomes [69,70]. This research setup is, however, often challenging due to the need for rigorous approval processes, such as expedited or convened-level IRB review. Additionally, extensive community involvement that is required for both CBR and CBPR necessitates significant time to build trust and establish strong collaborative relationships, making research completion lengthier compared to other approaches. Frameworks such as the National Institutes of Health’s community engagement model provide a structured roadmap for cultivating these research partnerships. By outlining core values and strategies, these frameworks have proven essential for enhancing both accountability and equity in the research process [71]. The INDICARE model, developed by Disterheft et al. [72,73,74], further emphasizes the significance of sustainability and active community participation in higher education research initiatives. By facilitating mutual learning, the CBR model empowers communities to confront and resolve their challenges effectively.

4.3. Place-Based Education

Recent educational innovations in CBE are increasingly marked by the integration of Place-Based Education (PBE), which is recognized for its transformative approach to connecting learners with their local environments and communities. Students’ local surroundings are used as the foundation for learning, ensuring that responsibility and stewardship toward communities are fostered [75,76,77,78,79]. Academic performance, social skills, and environmental awareness are noted to be enhanced as students engage with and contribute to their ecosystems [80]. Fundamentally, this model is recognized for empowering students to become agents of social change by fostering personal accountability and a sense of collective responsibility within local communities and broader society, across both traditional and online educational settings [80,81].

PBE is also recognized for its interdisciplinary potential, combining fields such as history, science, and environmental studies, thereby aligning educational practices with community-specific needs and bridging the gap between theoretical learning and practical application [82]. This interdisciplinary model is highlighted as an effective means of enriching educational experiences while addressing real-world community challenges. Civic engagement and democratic participation are also facilitated by PBE, as its implementation prepares students to understand and contribute to the social and political dynamics of their communities.

4.4. Online Learning

As online learning continues to gain momentum, virtual platforms, through the integration of new and innovative technologies, are increasingly incorporated into CBE to expand its reach and foster meaningful interactions among students and community members [83,84]. Connections with broader audiences are facilitated through Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) and community-oriented applications, which are utilized to address community needs more effectively [85,86]. The application of 3D virtual learning environments is also shown to foster collaborative learning and critical thinking by enabling students to engage in realistic scenarios, further enhancing the learning process [87,88]. Additionally, VR applications are increasingly employed to create immersive educational experiences, promoting active learning through simulations that mirror real-world contexts [89]. These technologies can provide students with safe and controlled environments where practical skills can be practiced while gaining insights into how communities encounter and address specific challenges [89]. Through these technological advancements, CBE is positioned as a dynamic model capable of adapting to evolving educational demands, ensuring its relevance across diverse settings and contributing to the development of both individual competencies and community resilience.

Table 1. CBE initiatives: description and key features.

CBE Initiative	Description	Key Features
Service learning	Combines academic learning with community service	− Experiential learning: Active participation in community projects − Educational outcomes: Enhances learning while addressing community needs
Community-based research	Collaboration between researchers and community members to address local issues	− Participatory methods: Community stakeholders as active participants − Empowerment: Fosters ownership and relevance of research
Place-based education	Emphasizes learning that is rooted in the local context, focusing on the interaction between students and their immediate environment	− Sense of place: Fosters a deeper connection and responsibility toward the local environment and community − Sustainability awareness: Encourages sustainable practices through interactions with local ecosystems
Online learning	Incorporates virtual platforms to promote community engagement in education	− Facilitated interaction: Promotes engagement among students and communities − Broader reach: Digital platforms enable access to wider audiences

illustrates key initiatives in CBE and their associated features, highlighting the diverse approaches employed to enhance community engagement and educational outcomes.

5. Challenges in CBE

Although CBE offers substantial benefits for students and communities, it has encountered various challenges in implementation over the years. Key challenges include institutional resistance, ensuring consistent quality, and many more. These challenges are detailed below.

5.1. Lack of Institutional Support and Funding Constraints

Existing research has identified the lack of institutional support as a significant challenge in implementing CBE. It has been shown that many educational institutions do not prioritize community engagement within their curricula, leading to insufficient resources and commitment to CBE initiatives. Specifically, funding constraints have been highlighted as a major barrier to delivering effective community-based education, particularly in rural areas where resources are already limited [21]. Barriers to implementing CBE are also discussed in terms of limited educational materials and the scarcity of experienced staff, which hinder the quality and effectiveness of such programs [90]. Establishing genuinely equal partnerships with communities and community organizations through CBE is also often met with several barriers. Challenges emerge around scheduling activities, determining the labor pool, and controlling the research outcomes. Each of these issues can impede the development of collaborative and equitable partnerships, ultimately restricting the effectiveness of community engagement initiatives.

5.2. Difficulty Aligning Academic Standards with Community Needs

Studies often highlight the difficulty of aligning academic standards with community needs as a major obstacle to effective CBE. Rigid curricula in educational institutions hinder adaptation to specific community requirements. For instance, engineering programs, which traditionally emphasize technical content, have been shown to neglect community engagement within their frameworks [91,92,93,94]. This misalignment highlights the critical need to embed community engagement within academic culture. Aslin and Brown [95] emphasized that while community involvement is essential, its implementation often lacks strategic planning, leading to fragmented and poorly coordinated initiatives. This disconnect arises because community-specific needs and contexts are frequently overlooked in the design of academic programs. Solikhah [96] emphasized the importance of empowering communities to actively participate in the educational design process to ensure curricula reflect their unique needs and contexts. Similarly, Strand et al. [97] highlighted that the sustainable implementation of CBE requires a comprehensive understanding of both academic expectations and community realities. Without such alignment, pressing local issues remain unaddressed, and students miss opportunities to develop critical soft skills such as teamwork and communication. These findings collectively underscore the importance of creating a flexible academic framework that incorporates community input, thus fostering a meaningful connection between education and societal needs while preparing students for collaborative and impactful contributions to their communities.

5.3. Complexities in Measuring Impact

The measurement of the true impact of CBE is acknowledged as a complex challenge, influenced by diverse factors such as varying educational models, differing community needs, and limitations in evaluation methodologies. The localized nature of CBE, which emphasizes the active participation of community members in the learning process, often results in outcomes that are highly context dependent and tailored to local needs. Consequently, traditional educational assessment methods have been observed to inadequately capture the nuanced benefits and specific competencies fostered by CBE initiatives. For example, White et al. [98] discussed how community-based diabetes self-management education programs encountered barriers in collecting and analyzing outcome data due to issues such as participant literacy, underscoring the difficulties in standardizing and quantifying results. This observation aligns with the findings of Folger et al. [99], who noted that the outcomes of CBE can vary significantly based on community-specific contexts. They further highlighted that the evolving nature of community needs complicates evaluation, requiring educational systems to continually reassess and adapt their methods to remain relevant. The dynamic nature of CBE often necessitates an adaptable approach to assessment, as initiatives frequently aim to address pressing social issues that demand flexibility in evaluation frameworks [100]. These insights collectively suggest that while measuring the impact of CBE is inherently complex, a focus on adaptable and context-sensitive evaluation strategies can enhance the understanding and effectiveness of these programs, ultimately aligning them more closely with the dynamic needs of the communities they serve.

5.4. Limited Exploration Across Different Academic Fields

The exploration of CBE across different academic fields and cultural contexts was found to be limited. Although significant research has been conducted on CBE in fields such as health and education, disciplines including engineering and the arts lacked extensive literature, with few studies investigating how community engagement can be systematically integrated into their curricula. For example, one notable example of CBE in engineering is the concept of service learning, which combines community service with academic instruction. Service learning has been shown to enhance students’ understanding of engineering principles while also addressing community needs [43]. However, the implementation of service learning in engineering education is not as widespread as in other fields, such as education or health. This suggests a need for more research to explore the effectiveness of service learning models in engineering and to identify best practices for integrating community engagement into engineering curricula. Furthermore, the application of CBE across different cultural contexts is an area that has received limited exploration. In fact, studies of CBE implementation in non-Western countries are underrepresented, which limits the understanding of how cultural factors influence educational practices. This gap in research calls for more case studies that focus on CBE in diverse cultural contexts, particularly in regions where educational practices may differ significantly from Western norms.

Table A1. Summary table of key literature.

Authors	Year	Country	Discipline	Study Type	Sample Size	Key Findings and Relevance to CBE
Boyce and Lysack [65]	2000	Canada	Muti-disciplinary	Qualitative	-	Effective Community-Based Rehabilitation (CBR) must address challenges related to community diversity. Emphasis is placed on community mobilization for successful implementation. Locally informed and context-sensitive approaches are key.
Judd et al. [100]	2001	USA	Public health	Qualitative	-	Unified standards are necessary for evaluating community-based health promotion programs. Standardized criteria support the improvement and scalability of health promotion programs. Establishing clear evaluation guidelines enhances accountability and outcomes.
Supovitz [16]	2002	USA	Multi-disciplinary	Quantitative	3000	Improving instruction and student learning requires teacher communities. Teacher communities should be supported by structured frameworks. A culture of instructional inquiry is essential for continuous improvement. Ongoing professional development is crucial for enhancing teaching effectiveness.
Bringle and Hatcher [58]	2002	USA	Muti-disciplinary	Qualitative	-	Psychological theories from interpersonal relationships provide a useful lens for understanding campus–community partnerships. These theories can help improve the dynamics of campus–community engagement. The application of these theories may enhance relationship building and collaboration between campuses and communities.
Cooper et al. [31]	2004	UK	Entrepreneurship education	Quantitative	63	Effective entrepreneurship education is rooted in experiential learning. Education responds to changing employment norms. It aims to reshape public perceptions of the entrepreneurial role in society.
Kristina et al. [2]	2006	Indonesia	Medicine	Quantitative	80	CBE programs are vulnerable to participant exhaustion. Thoughtful planning is essential to maintain sustainable community involvement.
Cooper [4]	2007	USA	Teacher education	Quantitative	42	Integrating community-based learning into formal teacher preparation enhances content delivery effectiveness. Community-based learning fosters the real-world application of teaching strategies.
Fischer et al. [37]	2007	Germany	Muti-disciplinary	Qualitative	-	Socio-cultural learning theories provide a strong foundation for community-based learning in universities. Concepts of social capital and social creativity support the shift toward community-oriented education. These theories help reposition universities to better engage with and benefit local communities.
Bodorkós and Pataki [22]	2009	Hungary	Sustainability	Qualitative	-	Participatory action research is well-suited to support regional sustainability initiatives. It facilitates collaboration across diverse disciplines and knowledge forms. The approach helps bridge gaps between different perspectives and expertise areas for sustainable development.
Coffey [7]	2010	USA	Teacher education	Quantitative	9	Service learning offers preservice educators valuable opportunities to engage with diverse communities. It encourages reflection on personal assumptions and biases. The approach helps better prepare educators for today’s diverse classrooms.
Hallman [6]	2012	USA	Teacher education	Quantitative	4	CBE helps teachers reimagine their future roles in education. It challenges traditional boundaries between school and community. The approach blurs the lines between teacher and student, fostering collaborative learning.
Chan [12]	2012	China	Medicine	Qualitative and quantitative	43	The study examines different assessment methods used for community service-based experiential learning in higher education. It explores the effectiveness and application of these methods in evaluating student engagement and learning outcomes.
Andrews et al. [70]	2012	USA	Public health	Qualitative	30	The study identifies the key dimensions and indicators essential for academic–community partnership readiness in engaging in CBPR. It highlights the factors that determine successful collaboration and participation in community-based participatory research.
Hynes and Swenson [13]	2013	USA	Social science, humanities, engineering	Qualitative	-	The study presents a framework emphasizing the humanistic aspects of engineering. It includes classroom examples and research opportunities to explore its impact on engineering education.
Wæge and Haugaløkken [30]	2013	Norway	Teacher education	Quantitative	27	Students value theory that is rooted in their own experiences. They select theories most relevant to addressing classroom challenges. Suggests that teacher education programs should align theoretical content more closely with practical teaching needs.
Smith and Sobel [3]	2014	USA	Multi-disciplinary	Qualitative	-	PBE and CBE can enhance students’ sense of efficacy. These approaches contribute to improved academic achievement in students.
White et al. [98]	2014	USA	Public health	Qualitative	-	CBE programs face challenges in outcomes assessment due to factors like resource limitations, participant mobility, and difficulties with follow-up and ongoing support.
Disterheft et al. [72,73,74]	2015	Portugal and the UK	Sustainability	Qualitative	51	Stakeholder engagement in higher education for sustainable development is linked to empowerment and capacity building. Participatory skills are crucial in promoting sustainability within higher education. Institutional conditions play a key role in the success of sustainability initiatives.
Waswa et al. [85]	2015	Germany and Kenya	Public health	Quantitative	20	A nutrition education intervention focused on local agro-biodiversity improved the diversity of children’s complementary diets. The intervention enhanced caregivers’ nutrition knowledge.
Westoby and Lyons [15]	2017	Australia	Social sustainability	Quantitative	15	Highlighted the complexities of integrating education with community organizing. Emphasized the challenges in contexts where the state aligns with corporate interests. Necessitated a nuanced, strategic approach to fostering change.
Carlisle et al. [5]	2017	USA	Multi-disciplinary	Quantitative	195	CBE helped students grow through collaboration and openness to new ideas. Partner organizations also benefited from the CBE initiative.
Hasani et al. [33]	2017	Indonesia	Mathematics	Qualitative	32	Project-based learning enhances students’ writing skills. It promotes deeper learning. Project-based learning also supports faculty professional development.
Estreet et al. [69]	2017	USA	Public health	Quantitative	951	Smoking cessation interventions conducted in community settings with trained peer motivators improved retention and success rates. Tailoring the program to specific populations contributed to better outcomes. Incorporating participant feedback was key to the program’s success.
Kim et al. [34]	2018	South Korea	Nursing	Quantitative	301	Strategies should be developed to strengthen nursing curricula that promote social responsibility among nursing college students. Curricula should focus on fostering ethical engagement and community awareness. Incorporating service learning and real-world experiences can enhance students’ sense of social responsibility.
Shin et al. [47]	2018	South Korea	Muti-disciplinary	Quantitative	110	Informative feedback and intrinsic motivation boost students’ confidence in and commitment to life purpose, especially during service work.
Collins et al. [66]	2018	USA	Psychology	Qualitative	-	Introduced CBPR to a broader audience of psychologists and highlighted its potential applications in psychological research.
Cameron et al. [54]	2018	Canada and Ghana	Muti-disciplinary	Qualitative	-	Experiential learning programs offer valuable opportunities for personal growth and community engagement. These programs may unintentionally reinforce neocolonial patterns of dominance and inequality. There is a need to critically examine and address power dynamics within experiential learning initiatives.
Beam and Schwier [79]	2018	USA	Muti-disciplinary	Qualitative	-	Provides the theoretical foundation for Place-Based Education (PBE). Explores the use of campus archival collections in instructional contexts. Highlights how PBE can enhance student learning by connecting academic content to local history and resources. Demonstrates the potential of using local archives to foster a deeper sense of place and community engagement in education.
Chung [36]	2019	Hong Kong	Occupational therapy and special Education	Quantitative	133	The new protocol equipped students with active learning, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills to support their success in community-based rehabilitation
Mayer et al. [1]	2019	USA	Sociology	Quantitative	60	Students on Community-Based Education (CBE) exhibited higher generalized self-efficacy compared to those in traditional educational settings. CBE students demonstrated stronger research skills than their peers in conventional education environments.
Forrester [60]	2019	USA	Music	Qualitative	-	Participation in service learning promoted personal growth and critical self-reflection among novice teachers. The initiative challenged deficit narratives, fostering a more positive perspective. It encouraged autonomy and leadership in teachers. Service learning strengthened novice teachers’ connection with the school community.
Choulagai [20]	2019	Nepal	Medicine	Qualitative	-	CBE implementation requires streamlined procedures and defined teaching communities. Stakeholder engagement is essential for successful implementation. Expanded service components are needed to enhance CBE programs. Community involvement should be integrated into all stages of CBE implementation.
Bell and Bell [28]	2020	USA	Entrepreneurship education	Qualitative	-	Proposes a three-stage framework for experiential entrepreneurship education. The framework outlines the roles of educators and learners in the process. Grounded in educational theories and philosophies to enhance the learning experience.
Coombe et al. [42]	2020	USA	Public health	Quantitative	21	Evaluating partnership synergy is crucial for improving the effectiveness of equity-focused CBPR. Synergy assessments help address health disparities through collaborative efforts. Partnership synergy promotes progress toward achieving health equity in community-based research.
Wallerstein et al. [52]	2020	USA	Public health	Qualitative	189	To understand power-sharing practices that lead to meaningful outcomes, CBPR and CER must be thoughtfully designed.
Zulkarnain et al. [40]	2021	Indonesia	Religion	Qualitative and quantitative	50	Models of CBE need improved management aligned with sound governance principles. Advocates moving beyond reliance on top-down authority and leader charisma for better effectiveness.
Vincent et al. [61]	2021	USA	Muti-disciplinary	Qualitative	-	Advocates for shifting service learning pedagogy from a student-centered model to an equity-based approach. Emphasizes the use of the stakeholder cloverleaf framework to guide this transition.
Rusch et al. [76]	2021	USA	Public health	Qualitative	28	Community-based EBI practitioners require access to operationalized implementation steps or best practices. These resources are essential for facilitating successful uptake and evaluation of programs.
Sedawi et al. [82]	2021	USA	Sustainability	Quantitative and qualitative	107	Place-based intervention programs significantly enhanced students’ sense of place. Increased environmental awareness and attachment to the local area. Fostered positive attitudes toward the area’s restoration. Led to changes in students’ personal environmental behaviors.
Solikhah [96]	2021	Indonesia	Muti-disciplinary	Qualitative	-	CBE in Indonesia faces challenges like high government dependence and weak community economy. Strong community engagement supports CBE initiatives. Cultural values play a key role in CBE success. Independent initiatives, especially in Muslim communities, have been successful.
Rambe and Pohan [32]	2022	Indonesia	Engineering	Quantitative	60	Project-Based Learning (PBL) is ideal for engineering education. Encourages student autonomy in learning. Promotes active engagement in problem-solving.
Markula and Aksela [57]	2022	USA	Muti-disciplinary	Quantitative	29	Project-based learning in science education promotes collaboration and scientific practices. Challenges include fostering student-driven inquiry and aligning projects with core content.
Padilla-Petry and Puigcercós [75]	2022	Spain	Muti-disciplinary	Quantitative	35	There are differing perceptions of youth engagement between young and adult researchers. Youth agency and autonomy are often more desired than recognized by adult researchers.
Bhattari and Basnet [38]	2023	Nepal	Muti-disciplinary	Qualitative		The adoption of a Western education model can undermine local knowledge and foster inequality. There is a need for a postmodern, locally grounded curricula to ensure educational justice and cultural sustainability.
McDougle and Li [55]	2023	USA	Muti-disciplinary	Qualitative	-	Service learning serves as a proximate social structure for students. It enables students to adopt and enact prosocial identities within peer networks.
Yazdani and Heidarpoor [59]	2023	Iran	Medicine	Qualitative	-	Integrating community-oriented initiatives into the curriculum addressesalign="center" local health needs. It helps reduce physician shortages in underserved areas.
Ribeiro et al. [56]	2023	USA, Portugal, Spain	Muti-disciplinary	Quantitative	15	Service learning improved students’ academic learning. It contributed to personal and professional development. It deepened students’ understanding of sustainability.
Tsumagari et al. [8]	2024	Japan	Social science	Quantitative	172	CBE enhances students’ abilities to listen to others in the community. It encourages active engagement in reporting, contacting, and consulting during decision-making processes.
Whitmore [81]	2024	USA	Muti-disciplinary	Qualitative	-	Place-Based Education (PBE) in online education faces significant challenges. Educators should expand their approach to integrate effective pedagogical practices. Creative integration of these practices into digital classrooms is essential.
Anlimachie et al. [9]	2025	Ghana	Teacher education	Quantitative	20	The study recommends creating culturally responsive teachers for rural communities through grassroots training and professional development programs.

provides a summary of the key literature used in this study.

6. Guidelines and Recommendations

This section presents a set of guidelines and recommendations derived from a survey conducted with 13 educators and four school administrators in the United States. The 13 educators participating in the study represented eight US states—West Virginia, New Mexico, Mississippi, Georgia, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, and Kansas—and brought a collective 36 years of experience in STEM education research and instruction at four-year higher education institutions. The expert panel also included four school administrators (twelve invited), representing West Virginia, Mississippi, North Dakota, and Texas. Together, they contributed over 11 years of experience in school finance and the development of community–university partnerships. These diverse backgrounds provided valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities for implementing CBE in STEM disciplines.

6.1. Face Validation

Face validation served as the foundational step to verify the relevance and accuracy of challenges associated with the implementation of CBE. This phase was critical for ensuring that the challenges identified aligned with the practical experiences of educators and administrators while also allowing for refinements based on participant feedback. The process began with the distribution of a concise summary of the challenges identified (see Section 5) through a survey questionnaire, which was administered via Google Forms. The summaries were designed to be clear and straightforward, ensuring that participants could easily digest the information and provide thoughtful feedback.

Participants were asked to evaluate the relevance of each challenge and sub-challenge using a Likert scale, where 1 represented “Not Relevant” and 5 represented “Highly Relevant”. This approach provided a structured quantitative method to prioritize challenges based on their perceived significance. To capture a deeper level of insight, sub-challenges were also included in the survey. For instance, broader challenges such as institutional barriers were paired with specific sub-challenges like the shortage of trained facilitators or the constraints imposed by rigid accreditation standards. Presenting these sub-challenges alongside the main issues allowed for a more comprehensive understanding of the challenges, offering a layered perspective of the barriers to CBE implementation. In addition to the numerical ratings, participants were encouraged to provide annotations and specific feedback for each challenge and sub-challenge. This qualitative input was intended to highlight omissions, refine nuances, and uncover additional challenges that participants considered critical but that may not have been initially identified. The feedback collected during face validation illuminated the real-world implications of these challenges. For example, several school administrators emphasized how limited budgets disproportionately affect rural schools. One administrator recounted an instance where insufficient funding prevented the hiring of a dedicated community liaison, a role seen as essential for establishing effective university–community partnerships. A related sub-challenge was highlighted by another participant, who noted the lack of essential materials and infrastructure, further exacerbating the difficulties in carrying out community-based initiatives in resource-poor environments. Educators also provided valuable feedback, particularly on how rigid academic standards act as significant obstacles to integrating community engagement into STEM curricula. For instance, one educator shared an example where an attempt to introduce a service learning module in a senior engineering course was blocked due to accreditation criteria that heavily prioritized technical competencies over the inclusion of social or contextual learning outcomes. Additionally, another educator pointed to how inflexible course structures often made it difficult to tailor projects to community-specific needs, stifling opportunities for meaningful collaboration.

By including both broad challenges and their corresponding sub-challenges in the evaluation, the survey allowed participants to provide more granular perspectives. This layered approach ensured that critical nuances were not overlooked, enriching the overall understanding of barriers to CBE. The insights gained from this face validation process laid the groundwork for subsequent discussions and contributed significantly to the development of targeted recommendations and solutions.

6.2. Open-Ended Discussion

Following face validation, open-ended discussions were conducted to delve deeper into the validated challenges. These discussions were designed to explore the root causes, contextual nuances, and potential solutions for each identified issue. The discussions were organized as virtual sessions to accommodate participants from diverse geographical locations. Participants were grouped based on their roles—educators or administrators—to create a focused and relevant dialogue within each session. Discussions were semi-structured, guided by prompts such as the following:

• “What institutional barriers have you faced in implementing CBE?”
• “How have rigid curricula impacted your ability to engage with community-specific needs?”
• “How have you ensured community buy-in in your classroom projects?”

Each session lasted 45 min, allowing ample time for participants to share their experiences and collaboratively explore solutions. Figure 3 illustrates the face validation and open-ended discussion process conducted in this study.

6.3. Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis

We conducted a detailed qualitative analysis by first applying thematic coding to the feedback gathered from both surveys and discussion sessions. Each comment was carefully reviewed and assigned specific codes representing recurrent themes such as budget constraints, curriculum rigidity, and resource inadequacies. To ensure the accuracy and reliability of this process, we utilized a qualitative analysis software (i.e., NVivo 14), which allowed us to systematically categorize responses and quantify the frequency of each theme. We then performed cross-validation by comparing the coded survey annotations with the transcribed discussion sessions, which helped us confirm recurring issues and identify any discrepancies or previously overlooked challenges. Finally, we integrated the qualitative insights with our quantitative survey data to develop a comprehensive overview of the challenges to effective CBE implementation. This synthesis was refined through follow-up discussions with a subset of participants, ensuring that our final analysis accurately reflected their experiences. The findings were then reported in a structured format that provided both high-level statistical summaries and detailed narrative accounts, forming a robust evidence base for our recommendations.

6.4. Finalized Set of Guidelines and Recommendations

Insights from face validation and discussions informed the development of comprehensive guidelines to improve CBE implementation. These guidelines focused on mitigating institutional barriers, promoting curriculum flexibility, improving impact assessment methods, encouraging interdisciplinary approaches, and fostering community buy-in for sustainable and meaningful outcomes.

• Institutional barriers such as limited funding and administrative support often hinder the implementation of CBE. Schools, particularly those in rural areas, should prioritize securing dedicated funding streams. Partnerships with local industries, non-profits, and government agencies can play a vital role in co-funding CBE initiatives, ensuring resources are allocated effectively. Administrative support is also equally crucial. Institutions should consider developing policies that incentivize faculty participation in CBE, such as offering workload adjustments or integrating CBE into tenure and promotion criteria. Moreover, appointing dedicated community liaisons can bridge the gap between educational institutions and local communities, facilitating meaningful partnerships and ensuring the smooth execution of projects.
• Rigid curricula often pose challenges to integrating community engagement into academic programs. Aligning accreditation requirements with the goals of CBE is a critical step. Collaborating with accreditation bodies to recognize the value of community engagement as a complement to technical competencies can encourage more educators to adopt CBE approaches. Embedding community-based projects into existing courses can introduce students to CBE without overhauling the curriculum. For instance, small-scale community projects can be incorporated as assignments, while elective courses focused on CBE can cater to students seeking deeper engagement. Interdisciplinary collaboration offers another avenue for flexibility, enabling educators to design projects that draw on diverse perspectives and skill sets. Piloting interdisciplinary projects can showcase their scalability and benefits, fostering broader acceptance within academic institutions.
• Measuring the impact of CBE initiatives remains a persistent challenge. Developing adaptable tools and metrics to assess social, educational, and community outcomes is essential. Combining quantitative measures, such as project completion rates, with qualitative feedback, such as testimonials and case studies, can provide a holistic view of a project’s success. Stakeholder feedback is equally important in refining CBE practices. Establishing feedback loops with community partners ensures that projects remain aligned with community needs. Student reflections can also offer valuable insights into the personal and professional growth fostered by CBE experiences, helping educators understand the broader impact of their initiatives.
• Disciplinary silos often limit the scope of CBE projects. Tailoring CBE initiatives to different disciplines can address this challenge. For example, engineering students can work on infrastructure improvements, while biology students can focus on local environmental issues. Cross-disciplinary projects can also address complex community challenges by leveraging diverse expertise. Faculty buy-in across disciplines is another critical factor. Training sessions and workshops can help faculty in traditionally rigid fields, such as engineering, design CBE components that meet academic standards. Highlighting successful disciplinary CBE models can inspire educators to adopt and adapt similar approaches, gradually normalizing CBE practices within their fields.
• Community engagement is at the heart of successful CBE initiatives. Building early and sustained engagement with community stakeholders is crucial. Involving community leaders during the planning phase and hosting town hall meetings to gather input can ensure that projects align with community priorities. Transparency and collaboration build trust, paving the way for successful partnerships. Demonstrating the long-term value of CBE initiatives can also encourage community buy-in. Sharing success stories, impact reports, and tangible benefits, such as improved local infrastructure or social services, underscores the relevance of these projects. Establishing reciprocal partnerships, where both educational and community needs are addressed, enhances the sustainability and effectiveness of CBE efforts.
• To ensure the long-term success of CBE, institutions must institutionalize best practices. Developing repositories of successful CBE project examples and resources can serve as valuable guides for educators and administrators. Annual review sessions can help assess progress, refine strategies, and share lessons learned. Expanding professional networks among educators and administrators engaged in CBE can foster collaboration and resource sharing. Partnering with regional and national organizations can amplify the impact of successful initiatives, extending their reach and fostering a culture of community engagement in education.

7. Potential Future Research Directions

This section outlines key future research directions identified through the literature review, face validation, and open-ended discussions. These directions are essential for advancing CBE to ensure its sustainability, relevance, and effectiveness across diverse contexts. Addressing these areas will help researchers gain a deeper understanding of how CBE can be systematically improved to meet the evolving needs of communities and educational objectives. It is important to note that these research directions represent only the less-explored areas and are by no means exhaustive.

7.1. Understanding the Long-Term Impacts of CBE

The critical need for longitudinal studies in CBE is highlighted as essential for accurately assessing the long-term impacts of educational interventions on both communities and individuals. Despite their importance, such studies remain relatively rare, with most CBE research focusing on short-term impacts. Longitudinal studies provide the unique advantage of tracking changes over time, offering valuable insights into the sustainability and effectiveness of educational programs, particularly in contexts where outcomes may emerge gradually and evolve as community dynamics shift. Future studies should focus on assessing how CBE shapes students’ professional identities and career choices over time For example, students who participate in CBE during their education may or may not prioritize community-focused projects in their careers, potentially choosing roles that emphasize—or overlook—social impact, sustainability, and ethical responsibility. Longitudinal studies tracking students after graduation can also evaluate how CBE experiences influence their contributions to the engineering field and society. Data gathered through surveys, interviews, and case studies of alumni may reveal insights into career pathways and professional decisions among students with CBE backgrounds. Furthermore, research can explore whether CBE fosters a place-based loyalty, particularly in regions such as Appalachia, where retaining engineering talent is a critical challenge.

7.2. Leveraging Modern Technology and Online Education for CBE

The rapid advancement of technology and the increasing prevalence of online education offer new opportunities and challenges for CBE. Research is needed to explore how digital tools, such as VR, digital twins, and online collaboration platforms, can enhance the reach and effectiveness of CBE. These tools have the potential to create immersive learning experiences that simulate real-world community interactions, making it possible for students to engage with community-based projects even when geographic barriers exist. However, the shift toward online learning also raises questions about the authenticity and depth of community engagement in virtual settings. Future research should investigate how virtual CBE experiences compare to in-person engagement in terms of fostering empathy, cultural understanding, and a sense of connection to the communities being served. It should also explore the potential of blended models that combine virtual simulations with field-based experiences, offering flexibility while maintaining the core principles of CBE.

7.3. Fostering Ethical and Compassionate Leaders Through CBE

Future research on CBE should explore its role in cultivating ethical, empathetic, and socially responsible leaders, expanding beyond a focus on technical skills. Studies can investigate how CBE experiences—such as community interactions, reflective activities, and socially relevant projects—foster ethical reasoning, empathy, and the consideration of social and environmental impacts among students. The process of this cognitive and emotional transformation warrants deeper examination, with research utilizing surveys, reflective essays, and interviews to capture how students’ values evolve through CBE. Additionally, future studies can focus on how mentorship and peer interactions within CBE projects shape students’ ethical development, including how guidance from faculty, community leaders, and peers reinforces socially responsible behaviors and career aspirations.

8. Conclusions

This review paper aims to examine the effectiveness of CBE in fostering problem-solving skills, career development, and socially responsible practices. It explores how CBE is incorporated into curricula, identifies successful models, and examines the role of modern technologies such as VR in enhancing CBE’s accessibility and impact. The paper highlights both the potential and challenges of integrating CBE into mainstream education and calls for further research into its long-term effects on students’ professional identities and commitment to community-focused work.

This study contributes to the theoretical understanding of CBE by providing a comprehensive framework that synthesizes existing literature across various educational domains. It identifies key components of CBE and explores how these elements intersect to create a transformative learning experience for students. The research also deepens the theoretical understanding of how CBE influences students’ ethical reasoning, social responsibility, and professional identity formation. By highlighting the potential for CBE to foster ethical leadership and socially responsible engineers, this study contributes to theory development related to experiential learning and social justice in education. On a practical level, this work offers valuable guidance for educators and policymakers seeking to integrate CBE into curricula. It highlights the challenges that institutions face, including resource constraints and resistance to adopting CBE as a core component, and provides strategies for overcoming these barriers. This paper emphasizes the importance of aligning CBE initiatives with accreditation standards and technical competencies, ensuring that community-driven projects meet educational and professional requirements. Furthermore, it suggests avenues for enhancing CBE’s accessibility and scalability through the use of virtual platforms and technology. This study also identifies future research directions that can help educators refine curriculum design, strengthen community partnerships, and better equip students with the skills necessary to address societal challenges. Finally, it underscores the importance of fostering a culture of ethical leadership in CBE programs, contributing to the development of graduates who are not only technically skilled but also socially responsible and community-oriented.

This study faces several limitations that constrain its contributions. The absence of longitudinal studies within its scope leaves gaps in understanding the sustained impacts of CBE on students’ professional identities and long-term community engagement. While the integration of technologies such as VR is explored, the challenges of equitable access, particularly in underserved areas, are not sufficiently addressed. Furthermore, the study provides limited practical examples and/or detailed context-specific frameworks for implementing and evaluating CBE programs, making its recommendations less actionable for diverse educational contexts. The generalization of findings across disciplines may also overlook specific challenges and opportunities unique to certain fields, reducing the study’s applicability in specialized domains. Future research should address these limitations to enhance the robustness and practical utility of CBE frameworks.