Impacts of Air Quality on Global Crop Yields and Food Security: An Integrative Review and Future Outlook

Abstract

Air pollution is an escalating global challenge with profound implications for agricultural production and food security. This review explores the impacts of deteriorating air quality on global crop yields and food security, emphasizing both direct physiological effects on plants and broader environmental interactions. Key pollutants such as ground-level ozone (O₃), fine particulate matter (PM_2.5 and PM₁₀), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) reduce crop yield and quality. They have been shown to inhibit plant growth, potentially by affecting germination, morphology, photosynthesis, and enzyme activity. PAH contamination, for example, can negatively affect soil microbial communities essential for soil health, nutrient cycling and organic matter decomposition. They persist and accumulate in food products through the food chain, raising concerns about food safety. The review synthesizes evidence demonstrating how air pollution undermines the four pillars of food security: availability, access, utilization, and stability by reducing crop yields, elevating food prices, and compromising nutritional quality. The consequences are disproportionately severe in low- and middle-income countries, where regulatory and infrastructural limitations exacerbate vulnerability. This study examines mitigation strategies, including emission control technologies, green infrastructure, and precision agriculture, while stressing the importance of community-level interventions and real-time air quality monitoring through IoT and satellite systems. Integrated policy responses are urgently needed to bridge the gap between environmental regulation and agricultural sustainability. Notably, international cooperation and targeted investments in multidisciplinary research are essential to develop pollution-resilient crop systems and inform adaptive policy frameworks. This review identifies critical knowledge gaps regarding pollutant interactions under field conditions and calls for long-term, region-specific studies to assess cumulative impacts. Ultimately, addressing air pollution is not only vital for ecosystem health, but also for achieving global food security and sustainable development in a rapidly changing environment.

1. Introduction

Air quality is a critical global concern, deeply intertwined with food production, public health, environmental resilience, and economic development [1]. The rise in industrialization, urbanization, and population growth has led to a substantial increase in the emission of harmful pollutants into the atmosphere [2]. Pollutants such as particulate matter (PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀), ground-level ozone (O₃), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are now recognized as major contributors to deteriorating air quality across both developed and developing nations [3,4].

Air pollution significantly impacts ecosystems, biodiversity, and agricultural productivity. Elevated levels of ground-level ozone, for instance, interfere with photosynthesis and cause oxidative damage to plant tissues, leading to reduced crop yields [5]. Tropospheric ozone poses a significant threat to global food security by reducing crop yields. Studies indicate that ozone can decrease wheat yields by 2–13% in Sub-Saharan Africa [6] and impact other major crops globally [7]. In addition, fine particulate matter can settle on plant surfaces, inhibiting growth, and altering soil chemistry, thus affecting food production indirectly [8].

Food security forms the bedrock of societal stability, economic growth, and overall wellness [9]. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), food security is achieved when everyone has consistent physical, social, and economic access to enough safe and nutritious food to fuel an active and healthy life [10]. This concept spans four critical areas: availability, access, utilization, and stability of food. Any disruption in these areas can trigger food insecurity, leading to malnutrition, reduced immunity, stunted physical and cognitive growth, and heightened disease susceptibility. Addressing food security requires holistic approaches. Sustainable food systems and clean environments are vital for meeting the nutritional needs of growing populations [11]. The complex relationship between air quality and food security highlights a pressing global challenge. Air pollution has far-reaching consequences, affecting food systems and agricultural production.

Despite growing recognition of the detrimental effects of air pollution on agriculture and food security, current reviews predominantly focus on isolated pollutants, specific regions, or narrow crop systems. They often lack a comprehensive global perspective that integrates multiple pollutants, agroecosystems, and socio-economic dimensions. This integrative review aims to fill these gaps by synthesizing the latest scientific evidence on the global impacts of key air pollutants. It examines the effect of ozone, particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and volatile organic compounds on agricultural productivity. It further contextualizes these impacts within the broader framework of food security, considering availability, access, utilization, and stability. By doing so, this review offers a holistic perspective that bridges environmental science and food system sustainability. Hence, it highlights emerging challenges and future outlooks under changing climatic and demographic pressures.

2. Overview of Key Air Pollutants Affecting Agriculture

Air pollution poses a significant threat to agricultural productivity, comprising a complex mixture of gases and particles that harm crop health, soil quality, and overall farm output. The following subsections provide an in-depth analysis of major pollutants (Figure 1), their sources, formation mechanisms, atmospheric behavior, and their pathways of influence on agroecosystems. Key pollutants are discussed in terms of their primary and secondary sources, places of formation (urban, rural, or mixed origins), atmospheric half-life, and transport distances to provide a comprehensive understanding of their spatial and temporal impacts (Table 1).

2.1. Ground-Level Ozone (O₃)

Ground-level ozone (O₃) is a potent secondary pollutant formed through photochemical reactions involving nitrogen oxides (NO_X) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of sunlight. Predominantly formed in urban and peri-urban areas with high NO_x and VOC emissions, O₃ can be transported over long distances (100–1000 km) due to its atmospheric half-life of approximately 1–2 weeks. Thus, it affects rural agricultural regions far from its source [12]. As one of the most detrimental air pollutants to vegetation, O₃ causes significant damage to crops, reducing yields and impacting plant health.

Studies show that current O₃ levels reduce wheat yields in China by 6.4–14.9% [13]. Soybean is particularly vulnerable, with global yield losses estimated at 7.1% annually [14]. O₃ enters plants through stomata, generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) that damage photosynthetic machinery and induce stomatal closure, hindering CO₂ fixation [15]. Crop sensitivity to O₃ varies, with C₃ crops like wheat and soybean more susceptible than C₄ crops [14]. Interestingly, soybean cultivars’ O₃ sensitivity increased by 32.5% between 1960 and 2000, possibly due to breeding for high yield and stomatal conductance [16].

The response of O₃ to reductions in precursor emissions is non-linear and depends on the NO_x-VOC ratio and local atmospheric conditions [17]. In NO_x-limited regimes, typically rural or suburban areas with low NO_x and high VOCs, reducing NO_x emissions decreases O₃ formation, with studies showing a 10–20% O₃ reduction per 30% NO_x cut [18]. Conversely, in VOC-limited regimes, common in urban areas with high NO_x and low VOCs, reducing NO_x alone may increase O₃ by up to 15%. This is due to reduced NO_x titration, unless VOC emissions are also controlled [19]. For example, urban studies in China found that simultaneous NO_x and VOC reductions (30% each) lowered O₃ by 25–35%, compared to negligible reductions when only NO_x was targeted [20,21]. To achieve substantial O₃ reductions, a balanced approach targeting both NO_x and specific VOC species is recommended.

Mitigation strategies are critical to minimize O₃-induced crop damage. Strategies must account for these regimes to be effective. In NO_x-limited rural areas, stricter vehicle and industrial NO_x controls (e.g., selective catalytic reduction) can reduce O₃ and protect crops. Effective mitigation may require the identification of local O₃ formation regimes using tools such as O₃ isopleth diagrams or photochemical modeling to guide the optimal balance of NO_x and VOC reductions [22]. This dynamic necessitates tailored, region-specific air quality management strategies that consider local chemistry, meteorology, and seasonal variations to optimize precursor controls, avoid counterproductive outcomes, and achieve effective ozone mitigation.

Improving crop management practices, such as optimizing irrigation and adjusting planting schedules, reduces O₃ uptake by limiting stomatal opening during peak O₃ concentrations when sunlight-driven photochemical reactions are highest [23]. For example, deficit irrigation techniques can reduce stomatal conductance, thereby decreasing O₃ entry while maintaining water use efficiency [24]. CO₂ fertilization enhances photosynthetic rates by increasing internal CO₂ concentrations. This partially counteracts O₃-induced stomatal closure and oxidative stress, thereby improving plant resilience and yield stability [25]. Recent studies indicate that elevated CO₂ levels can reduce O₃-related yield losses in wheat by up to 20% under controlled conditions [26]. Selecting O₃-tolerant crop varieties, developed through breeding or genetic modification, minimizes damage by enhancing antioxidant defenses or reducing stomatal density, which limits O₃ uptake [27]. For instance, O₃-resistant wheat varieties have shown 8–10% higher yields under high-O₃ conditions compared to sensitive cultivars [28]. These strategies, supported by experimental evidence, enhance agricultural resilience under changing atmospheric conditions and are crucial for sustaining crop productivity and food security.

2.2. Particulate Matter (PM_2.5 and PM₁₀)

Particulate matter (PM) consists of tiny solid and liquid particles suspended in the air classified by size, with PM_2.5 (particles ≤ 2.5 μm) and PM₁₀ (particles ≤ 10 μm) being of greatest concern [29]. PM originates from both urban sources (e.g., vehicle emissions, industrial activities) and rural sources, with agriculture itself being a significant primary source. Practices such as tillage, sowing, and harvesting, particularly under dry or improperly timed conditions, release substantial amounts of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5. For instance, field studies in northeastern China report that dry-soil tillage can emit up to 107 mg/m² of PM₁₀, highlighting the impact of soil disturbance [30]. Tillage emissions often exceed those from wind erosion, making them a major contributor to rural PM pollution [31]. Additional agricultural sources include harvesting, mechanical sowing, and straw handling, which release plant and soil derived particulates [32]. In Taiwan, soil-disturbing operations near rice and corn fields significantly elevate PM_2.5 exposure in adjacent communities, with crustal signatures (e.g., silica, aluminum) indicating local agricultural origins [33]. Rural air quality studies in Iowa, USA, further confirm higher levels of crustal PM components in farming zones compared to urban settings [34].

PM deposition on leaves reduces sunlight interception and photosynthesis, impacting plant productivity [35]. It also carries heavy metals and toxic substances, contaminating soil and entering the food chain through root uptake and foliar absorption [36,37]. With an atmospheric half-life of days to weeks and transport distances of 10–1000 km, PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ can affect regions far from their sources, depending on meteorological conditions [38]. To address these challenges, researchers suggest using tolerant plants as biomonitors, developing green belts, and optimizing agricultural practices (e.g., reduced tillage, proper timing) to minimize PM emissions [31,35,38].

2.3. Nitrogen Oxides (NO_X) and Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂)

Nitrogen oxides (NO_X) are primarily emitted from combustion processes in urban areas (e.g., vehicles and power plants), while sulfur dioxide (SO₂) mainly originates from fossil fuel burning and industrial activities, also predominantly urban [39]. Both pollutants have atmospheric half-lives of hours to days and can be transported 10–100 km, contributing to regional air quality issues [39]. NO_X and SO₂ are precursors to acid rain, which acidifies soils and surface waters. Acid leaches essential nutrients from the soil, disrupting nutrient uptake by plants and leading to nutrient imbalances and reduced plant growth [40]. Long-term exposure to NO_X and SO₂ can cause chronic damage to vegetation and alter soil microbial communities [41]. The formation of secondary particulate matter, exacerbated by the presence of ammonia, further contributes to air quality degradation and climate change [42]. Acid rain also affects soil water status, which plays a critical role in nutrient cycling by facilitating the transport and availability of nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur in agroecosystems. Acidification reduces soil water’s capacity to retain and mobilize these nutrients, exacerbating nutrient deficiencies and hindering plant growth [43,44].

2.4. Ammonia (NH₃) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Ammonia (NH₃) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are increasingly recognized as significant contributors to air pollution in agricultural systems. They are often referred to as “emerging pollutants” due to their rising emissions from intensified agricultural practices, new sources, and evolving regulatory challenges. This is despite their long-standing study in environmental contexts [45,46]. NH₃, primarily emitted from rural sources such as fertilizer application and livestock operations, has an atmospheric half-life of hours to days and can be transported 10–100 km [45]. These emissions, driven by the expansion of intensive agriculture, contribute to secondary PM formation. Their capacity to alter soil pH affects nutrient availability and poses risks to food safety through soil and crop contamination [45,47]. VOCs arise from both urban sources (e.g., industrial solvents) and rural sources, including pesticide application and poultry production. They have a half-life ranging from hours to days and transport distances of 10–1000 km [47]. VOCs react with nitrogen oxides (NO_x) to form ground-level ozone, exacerbating crop damage. Some VOCs are directly toxic to plants at high concentrations [41,47]. For example, poultry production releases substantial VOCs, such as methanol, ethanol, and acetone [48], while pesticide application in crop cultivation contributes up to 30% of annual VOC emissions in major grain-producing regions of China [49].

The designation of NH₃ and VOCs as “emerging” reflects their increasing relevance in agricultural air pollution. They are driven by intensified practices and gaps in regulatory frameworks, particularly in regions with rapidly expanding agricultural output. Mitigation strategies include vegetative environmental buffers around poultry farms to reduce VOC concentrations [48] and comprehensive measures, such as reduced pesticide use and improved utilization efficiency [49]. Addressing these pollutants requires targeted policies to manage their agricultural sources and minimize their impact on crop yields and food security.

2.5. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Widespread polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon pollution in agroecosystems occurs through several pathways. Firstly, small PAH particles can settle onto farmlands from vehicular exhausts, industrial emissions and burning fossil fuels [50]. Here, they accumulate into higher concentrations in leafy vegetables, with large surface areas for particle absorption. Their consumption is a significant pathway of PAH exposure. Airborne PAH particles are deposited onto agricultural fields through rain and dry deposition. Because of their hydrophobic nature, they readily bind to organic soil matter. Their accumulation, persistence and toxicity pose major threats to agriculture. They are absorbed by crop roots and bioaccumulated in plant tissues and by extension within the food chain [51]. Other human activities such as coal-tar-based road sealers, wood and garbage burning and high-temperature cooking processes can also result in PAH generation [50]. Finally, PAHs can enter agricultural land through irrigation with contaminated water, the use of sewage sludge as fertilizer, or other polluted waste.

High concentrations of PAHs in the soil can disrupt plant growth and reduce overall crop yields. For example, PAHs can decrease the germination rate and early growth of seedlings by causing oxidative damage to cellular membranes and disrupting metabolic functions [51]. PAHs can also decrease the rate of photosynthesis by interfering with photosynthetic pigments like chlorophyll. As a result, they disrupt the mechanical processes of cellular membranes, impair nutrient availability and uptake, reduce soil quality, and directly compromise soil fertility and productivity. Thus, they interfere with the crop’s ability to absorb water and nutrients from the soil [51].

Plant products contaminated with PAHs pose significant exposure to livestock where the chemicals can concentrate on meat and dairy products. Humans are exposed primarily through dietary exposure. Several PAHs are mutagenic, genotoxic, and carcinogenic. These means they can cause genetic mutations and cancer. One example is Benzo [a] pyrene, which is classified as a Group 1 carcinogen [52]. In addition to cancer, PAH exposure is linked to damage to the liver, kidneys, and reproductive system, as well as immunosuppressive effects [53].

PAH contamination cannot be detected by taste, smell and sight [54]. Thus, it is impossible for consumers to identify and reject contaminated products. It is essential to control and monitor PAH levels in agricultural areas and food products to ensure food safety. The best option is to avoid contaminated sources. Other options include using crops which can clean PAH-contaminated soil through the rhizoremediation process [55,56]. These plants enhance microbial activity to break down the pollutants, rather than plants directly absorbing them. Similarly, bacteria, fungi and algae can be utilized to metabolize and break down PAHs [57]. In food production, strategies like filtering smoke during smoking and using packaging materials that absorb PAHs can reduce final contamination [58]. Finally, further research is necessary to understand the complex interactions between different PAHs and other pollutants such as heavy metals and their combined effects on crop health. A summary of the key air pollutants affecting agriculture is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of key air pollutants affecting agriculture.

Pollutant	Source	Mechanisms/Pathways	Impact on Agriculture	Crop Examples/Data	References
Ground-Level Ozone (O3)	Formed from NOX and VOCs under sunlight	Enters plant stomata, generates ROS, damages photosynthesis	Reduces photosynthesis, growth, and yield	Wheat (6.4–14.9% yield loss), soybean (~7.1% global yield loss)	[8,13,14]
Particulate Matter (PM2.5, PM10)	Industry, vehicle emissions, agriculture	Blocks light, reduces photosynthesis, transports heavy metals	Reduces photosynthetic efficiency, growth, reproduction	Multiple crops affected globally	[29,35,36]
Nitrogen Oxides (NOX) & Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)	Combustion, fossil fuel burning	Forms acid rain, soil acidification, nutrient cycling disruption	Reduces plant nutrient availability, stunts growth	General crop and soil impacts reported	[39,40,41]
Ammonia (NH3) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)	Agriculture, industrial solvents, pesticide applications	Forms secondary PM, ozone precursor, disrupts soil chemistry	Secondary PM formation, ozone precursor, direct toxicity	VOCs from poultry farms, pesticides contribute ~30% of agri-VOC emissions	[41,46,48]
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)	Vehicle exhausts, industrial emissions, fossil fuel and garbage burning, use of contaminated water and wastes	Rain, dry deposition, bind to soil where they are absorbed through the roots and bioaccumulate in plant tissues and the food chain including meat and dairy products.	Disrupt crop growth, reduce crop yields. They are mutagenic, genotoxic and carcinogenic and can cause genetic mutations, cancer, and other diseases.	Leafy vegetables processed cereals, vegetable oils, tea, and meat products	[50,51,52,53]

Table 1. Summary of key air pollutants affecting agriculture.

Pollutant	Source	Mechanisms/Pathways	Impact on Agriculture	Crop Examples/Data	References
Ground-Level Ozone (O3)	Formed from NOX and VOCs under sunlight	Enters plant stomata, generates ROS, damages photosynthesis	Reduces photosynthesis, growth, and yield	Wheat (6.4–14.9% yield loss), soybean (~7.1% global yield loss)	[8,13,14]
Particulate Matter (PM2.5, PM10)	Industry, vehicle emissions, agriculture	Blocks light, reduces photosynthesis, transports heavy metals	Reduces photosynthetic efficiency, growth, reproduction	Multiple crops affected globally	[29,35,36]
Nitrogen Oxides (NOX) & Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)	Combustion, fossil fuel burning	Forms acid rain, soil acidification, nutrient cycling disruption	Reduces plant nutrient availability, stunts growth	General crop and soil impacts reported	[39,40,41]
Ammonia (NH3) and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)	Agriculture, industrial solvents, pesticide applications	Forms secondary PM, ozone precursor, disrupts soil chemistry	Secondary PM formation, ozone precursor, direct toxicity	VOCs from poultry farms, pesticides contribute ~30% of agri-VOC emissions	[41,46,48]
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)	Vehicle exhausts, industrial emissions, fossil fuel and garbage burning, use of contaminated water and wastes	Rain, dry deposition, bind to soil where they are absorbed through the roots and bioaccumulate in plant tissues and the food chain including meat and dairy products.	Disrupt crop growth, reduce crop yields. They are mutagenic, genotoxic and carcinogenic and can cause genetic mutations, cancer, and other diseases.	Leafy vegetables processed cereals, vegetable oils, tea, and meat products	[50,51,52,53]

3. Impact of Air Quality on Food Security

As the global population grows, resilient and sustainable food systems are crucial, requiring a deep understanding of how poor air quality undermines food security. Air pollutants interact with climate, soil, and ecosystems, creating cascading effects that affect the food chain and ultimately, human consumption.

One of the most direct ways air pollutions threaten food security is by harming crop production. Recent studies have documented significant crop yield losses due to elevated ozone (O₃) levels. Globally, O₃-induced yield losses are estimated at 3.6% for maize, 2.6% for rice, 6.7% for soybean, and 7.2% for wheat [59]. Soybean and wheat are particularly sensitive, with yield reductions of 0.36–0.96% and 0.26–1.23% per ppb O₃ increase, respectively [7]. Soybean exhibits larger protein yield losses compared to wheat and rice, likely due to O₃ effects on nitrogen fixation [60]. In the United States, historical yield losses from O₃ were 8.7% for maize and 4.8% for soybean [61]. While rising CO₂ levels may partially mitigate O₃ damage by reducing stomatal uptake, future climate warming and air pollution changes could significantly impact crop yields [59,61]. In China, ozone-induced crop losses are particularly severe, with annual production losses of 34–91 million metric tons for key crops [62]. The economic impact is substantial, with ozone-related costs representing 7% of China’s GDP in 2015 [63]. Ozone enters plants through leaves, generating reactive oxygen species that damage chloroplasts, hinder photosynthesis, and disrupt physiological processes [15].

The economic impact of crop losses caused by ozone pollution is considerable, with global annual losses for key crops estimated at between $5 billion and $18.8 billion [64]. In Sub-Saharan Africa, tropospheric ozone has been linked to notable yield reductions, with wheat and beans experiencing declines of up to 13% and 21%, respectively [6]. Similar adverse effects are seen in South Asia, particularly in India where projected increases in ozone levels are expected to further suppress crop productivity [64]. Research indicates that many African staple crops, including wheat, finger millet, pearl millet, and beans, are sensitive to ozone pollution. These crops exhibit visible leaf damage and reduced yields [65]. In tropical regions, legumes such as common bean, mung bean, and cowpea exhibited substantial yield reductions with increasing ozone exposure, while C₄ crops like millets were less affected [66]. A study in Uganda estimated average bean yield losses of 14–17% due to ozone pollution, with some sub-regions experiencing losses up to 27.5% [67]. These findings highlight the threat of ozone pollution to crop production, particularly for legumes and wheat, in both developed and developing countries

In India, PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ have caused substantial yield losses in agrarian states [68]. Similarly, in California, high PM levels on crop foliage, primarily from wind-blown soil, affected food quality [69]. In the United States, PM and other air pollutants reduced maize and soybean yields by approximately 5% over two decades, although air quality improvements have halved this impact since 1999 [70].

Acid rain, driven by sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NO_X) deposition, often triggers a cascade of negative effects. It lowers soil pH, leading to nutrient leaching, particularly calcium, potassium, and magnesium. Acidified soils often suffer from aluminum toxicity and reduced microbial diversity. This results in impaired nutrient cycling and root function [40]. In heavily industrialized regions like China and Eastern Europe, chronic acid rain exposure has been linked to significant yield declines in cereal crops and fruit trees [71]. The damage extends to direct foliar injury, where acid droplets etch and corrode leaf tissues, limiting photosynthesis and reproductive success [72].

Ironically, agriculture itself contributes to the problem through ammonia (NH₃) emissions from excessive fertilizer use and livestock waste. Airborne ammonia reacts with atmospheric acids to form secondary particulate matter, perpetuating a feedback loop that degrades crop health [73]. This cycle is well-documented in high-density agricultural regions like the Netherlands and northern India [74,75]. NH₃ emissions impact crops directly and alter atmospheric chemistry, increasing the oxidative capacity of the air and promoting the formation of pollutants like ozone [76].

Beyond direct plant effects, air pollution indirectly pressures food security by accelerating climate change. Short-lived climate pollutants like black carbon, methane, and ozone contribute to global warming, disproportionately affecting regions vulnerable to food insecurity. Methane is over 25 times more potent than CO₂ in trapping heat [77]. Black carbon reduces ice and snow albedo, hastening glacial melt. These changes disrupt precipitation patterns, extend droughts, and increase extreme weather events, severely impacting farming [78]. For example, altered monsoon patterns in South Asia and intensified heatwaves in Sub-Saharan Africa have been linked to rising pollutant concentrations. This leads to crop failures and livestock losses that undermine food production and economic stability [79,80,81].

Airborne toxins contaminating water bodies used for irrigation further exacerbate the crisis. Pollutants like nitrates, phosphates, and mercury bioaccumulate in aquatic ecosystems, causing algal blooms and fish kills [82]. When polluted water irrigates farmland, toxins transfer to soil and crops, magnifying food safety risks. This issue is particularly acute in coastal regions like the Mekong Delta and Ganges-Brahmaputra basin, where agriculture relies heavily on surface water [83,84].

Beyond direct impacts on crops, air pollution affects pollinator health and ecosystem services crucial for food security. Many fruit, vegetable, and oilseed crops rely heavily on animal pollinators like bees, butterflies, and other insects, making their health vital for global food production [85]. Exposure to O₃ impairs honey bees’ ability to detect floral odors and affects their learning and memory processes [86]. Similarly, O₃ alters the olfactory perception and behavior of other pollinator species, with effects varying based on exposure levels and duration [87]. Field studies demonstrate that elevated levels of diesel exhaust and O₃, even below current air quality standards, substantially reduce pollinator counts and flower visits, leading to decreased pollination and plant yield [88].

Air pollution also affects post-harvest food storage and preservation. Poor air quality degrades storage infrastructure and increases spoilage rates [89]. Pollutants and humidity accelerate corrosion of storage containers, while airborne mold spores and fungal pathogens thrive in polluted environments, increasing mycotoxin contamination risks [90]. Recent studies demonstrate that air pollution significantly impacts agricultural labor productivity and food security. Exposure to pollutants like PM_2.5 and ozone reduces worker productivity, with one standard deviation increases associated with 1.1% and 2% decreases, respectively [91]. PM_2.5 exposure negatively affects labor productivity through decreased working hours and lower unit wages, particularly impacting outdoor workers [92]. Globally, a 1% increase in PM_2.5 and ozone concentrations lead to 0.104% and 0.207% declines in agricultural total factor productivity, respectively [93]. In China, farmers reduce their agricultural working hours by 0.4 h/day for every 10 μg/m⁻³ increase in PM_2.5, and yearly working days decrease by 2.7 for each 1 μg/m⁻³ increase in annual average PM_2.5 [94]. These findings highlight air pollution’s substantial threat to agricultural sustainability and global food security

There is growing concern that air pollutants may trigger epigenetic changes in plants and animals, potentially impacting food systems in unforeseen ways. Research suggests chronic exposure to air pollutants could lead to heritable changes in gene expression, affecting plant vigor, disease resistance, and nutrient metabolism [95]. For instance, rice exposed to heavy metal stress showed transgenerational memory of altered gene expression and DNA methylation [96]. Similarly, Pinus nigra populations exposed to long-term air pollution exhibit significant epigenetic differences compared to control populations, with higher epigenetic diversity in embryos of exposed trees [97].

These dimensions highlight the complex and extensive threat air pollution poses to food security, extending beyond direct biophysical damage to plants and animals. As such, any comprehensive policy aiming to safeguard food systems in the context of environmental sustainability must address air quality as a central pillar. It is necessary to integrate pollution control with agricultural resilience planning, rural health infrastructure, and ecosystem service conservation.

4. Solutions and Mitigation Strategies for Air Quality Improvement

4.1. Integrated Policy and Regulatory Approaches

Air pollution mitigation is crucial for environmental sustainability and public health. Effective strategies require coordinated, multi-sectoral interventions targeting emissions from transportation, industry, agriculture, and urban infrastructure. Over the past six decades, regulatory actions, particularly targeting vehicle emissions, have significantly improved air quality in many urban centers. Ongoing policy shifts such as fleet turnover and the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) are expected to yield further benefits [98,99].

National and international policy frameworks have focused on incentivizing clean energy use, supporting low-emission transport, and implementing punitive measures to discourage polluting behaviors. For example, global compliance with emission standards and climate agreements such as the Paris Agreement aligns air quality goals with broader sustainable development objectives [100,101]. Ambitious interventions across sectors, particularly in energy, agriculture, and consumer behavior could reduce anthropogenic PM_2.5 exposure by up to 75% by 2040 [100].

4.2. Transportation Sector: Benefits and Limitations of EVs

Governments worldwide have implemented diverse policies, including incentives, support, and punitive measures, particularly in the transportation sector. Key strategies involve changing energy sources, promoting renewable energy, and encouraging low-emission vehicles. These efforts align with international agreements and contribute to multiple sustainable development goals [101].

While electric vehicles (EVs) significantly reduce local tailpipe emissions and contribute to improved urban air quality, their impact has some challenges. EVs typically weigh 20–24% more than comparable internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). This leads to increased emissions of non-exhaust particulate matter (PM), particularly coarse PM₁₀, due to greater tire wear, road abrasion, and dust resuspension [102,103]. Although regenerative braking can reduce brake-dust emissions by 65–95%, experimental findings suggest that without factoring in regenerative braking, EV non-exhaust PM emissions may exceed those of ICEVs by approximately 20% [104]. Nevertheless, when accounting for secondary PM formation and the reduction in exhaust emissions, most studies conclude that total PM_2.5 emissions from EVs remain lower than from ICEVs, albeit with a relatively higher share of PM₁₀ originating from non-exhaust sources [105]. To optimize EV deployment, mitigation strategies must account for climate stressors (e.g., increased ambient temperatures that may affect battery efficiency) and urban demographic growth, which could intensify transport demand and offset emission gains.

4.3. Industrial Emission Control

Industrial pollution mitigation involves various technological and economic approaches. Electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, flue gas desulfurization, and selective catalytic reduction are effective in controlling emissions [106]. Economic tools like carbon taxes and cap-and-trade systems have proven successful in reducing emissions while generating revenue for sustainability projects [107]. Subsidies for clean energy technologies enhance economic viability [107]. Environmental regulations, including planned and unplanned inspections, have shown to negatively influence air pollution levels [108]. Both command-and-control and tradable permit environmental regulations have led to increased pollution abatement costs but have also reduced industrial SO₂ emissions [109]. The balanced application of these regulatory options is crucial in the short term, while a gradual shift towards emissions trading systems is recommended for long-term environmental and economic development.

4.4. Agricultural Innovation and Emission Reduction

Agricultural emissions, particularly of ammonia (NH₃) and nitrous oxide (N₂O), significantly contribute to secondary PM_2.5 formation. Recent studies emphasize the role of advanced technologies in lowering greenhouse gas emissions within agriculture. Precision farming techniques, which utilize drones, satellite imagery, and soil sensors, enable more accurate fertilizer application. This minimizes nutrient losses through volatilization and runoff and reducing ammonia (NH₃) emissions that contribute to the formation of secondary fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) [110]. These innovations present promising strategies to decrease nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions while maintaining crop productivity [111]. Biogas digesters for managing livestock waste not only reduce methane emissions but also generate renewable energy, creating a sustainable cycle [112]. Controlled-release and nitrification-inhibiting fertilizers also show promise in reducing atmospheric reactive nitrogen [113]. Biological alternatives to chemical fertilizers, including biological nitrification inhibitors, could eliminate at least 30% of agriculture-related greenhouse gas emissions over a 10-year period while protecting waterways and soils [114]. While these innovations are effective, they require supportive policies and capacity-building programs to ensure widespread adoption. This is particularly important in low-and middle-income countries where resource constraints may hinder implementation.

4.5. Urban Planning and Green Infrastructure

Urban planning strategies such as green infrastructure (GI), low-emission zones (LEZs), and transit-oriented development (TOD) play an important role in improving air quality, which indirectly supports food security and food production. By reducing traffic-related emissions through LEZs in cities like London and Berlin and promoting sustainable transportation via TOD in Stockholm and Singapore, these measures decrease harmful pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) and particulate matter (PM). Improved air quality benefits agricultural productivity by reducing crop exposure to air pollutants that can impair growth and yield, thereby contributing to food security [115,116].

Urban green infrastructure, including street trees, green roofs, vertical gardens, and living walls, serves as a natural biological filter that can remove particulate matter from the atmosphere [116,117]. Certain tree species, such as the London plane and silver birch, are particularly effective at capturing airborne particulates. They contribute to improved mental health, biodiversity, and urban cooling. Leaf characteristics like coniferous needles, rough textures, and trichomes may enhance particulate matter capture, although evidence remains inconclusive [118]. While beneficial, the effectiveness of GI depends on local climatic conditions, vegetation type, and pollutant load. This highlights the need for climate-adaptive urban greening strategies. Given projected urban population expansion, GI must be integrated into broader spatial planning frameworks to ensure scalable benefits for air quality and urban food production systems [115].

4.6. Public Awareness and Community-Based Interventions

Community engagement and public awareness campaigns are essential for behavioral change. Educating the public about pollution sources, health impacts, and the use of real-time Air Quality Index (AQI) data empowers individuals and communities to reduce exposure [119,120]. Campaigns that reach schools, workplaces, and local authorities can foster a culture of environmental responsibility. In the face of rapid urbanization and climate-driven health risks, targeted communication becomes even more important for mobilizing community resilience.

4.7. Monitoring and Technological Innovations

Advanced monitoring technologies are revolutionizing air quality assessment and environmental monitoring. IoT enabled sensors and sophisticated modules enhancing environmental monitoring systems, allowing for real-time data collection on air quality, water pollution, and waste management [121]. Satellite remote sensing, coupled with ground-based smart sensors and geospatial technologies, is improving air quality monitoring and management capabilities [122]. These technologies enable more effective enforcement of environmental regulations, as demonstrated in China where automated monitoring systems led to strategic pollution reduction near monitoring sites [123]. On-ground Air Quality Monitoring Stations (AQMS) provide high-resolution data essential for urban management. Countries like the United States, the United Kingdom, and Turkey have comprehensive AQMS networks that track pollutant levels and support early warning systems [124,125]. Mobile labs and low-cost IoT sensors are filling monitoring gaps in resource-limited areas, enabling real-time air quality assessments in rural and underserved urban areas [126].

The feasibility of deploying such advanced systems in resource-constrained settings remains a critical concern. High installation and maintenance costs, coupled with limited technical expertise, and weak institutional infrastructure often hinder the adoption of these technologies in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). To overcome these barriers, governments and development partners can prioritize scalable, low-cost monitoring solutions such as open-source sensors, community-based air monitoring networks, and mobile sensor platforms. Public–private partnerships, regional data sharing platforms, and targeted capacity-building initiatives can further support sustainable implementation.

4.8. Urban Planning, Green Infrastructure, and the Future of Agricultural Areas

As air pollution continues to pose a threat to agriculture, especially in peri-urban and intensively farmed regions, land use planning and zoning provide an effective mitigation strategy [127,128]. Effective classification and management of agricultural land can reduce exposure to harmful pollutants such as ozone (O₃), ammonia (NH₃), particulate matter (PM), and acidifying compounds like SO₂ and NO_x [129]. Tools such as agroecological zoning (AEZ) and GIS-based pollution risk mapping can help delineate areas most suitable for long-term agricultural productivity while minimizing pollution exposure.

Future urban planning will profoundly influence existing agricultural lands, especially as global urban populations are projected to reach 68% by 2050 [130]. Approximately 50–63% of new urban land is expected to encroach on existing croplands, potentially reducing global crop production by 1–4% [131]. This encroachment brings agriculture closer to urban pollution sources, increasing exposure to nitrogen oxides (NO_x), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and particulate matter (PM). Hence, it has the potential of intensifying crop yield reductions. For example, wheat yields suffer losses of 6.4–14.9% in areas with elevated ozone (O₃) concentrations [132,133]. Urban pollution plumes containing NO_x and VOCs react with ammonia (NH₃) from rural sources to generate secondary PM_2.5, resulting in a rise in particulate pollution levels in peri-urban zones [134]. This interaction affects crop yields in peri-urban zones [135].

Further, uncoordinated urban expansion can significantly undermine agricultural viability. Urban sprawl often leads to the encroachment of cities into fertile agricultural zones, bringing farms into closer contact with high-emission areas [136,137]. This proximity increases crop exposure to urban-derived pollutants and disrupts local microclimates through the urban heat island effect and altered wind patterns. Moreover, increased demand for land and infrastructure may displace smallholder farms, fragment agricultural land, and intensify pressure on remaining rural resources [137,138,139].

To address these risks, coordinated urban-rural land use policies are essential. These involve creating protective buffer zones, setting urban growth limits, and incorporating green infrastructure and air corridors into city planning. Encouraging vertical urban development, preserving prime farmland, and adopting pollution-resistant farming practices in vulnerable areas can enhance resilience [140]. Hence, effective regional planning requires coordination across agriculture, transportation, and environmental sectors to harmonize air quality management and food security objectives. Such integrated approaches are key to sustainable land use amid growing demographic pressures and climate variability.

4.9. Strategic Communication with Stakeholders and Policymakers for Effective Air Pollution Mitigation

Effective communication with stakeholders and policymakers is crucial for informed decision making and implementing impactful air pollution mitigation strategies [141]. Stakeholders such as farmers, urban planners, environmental regulators, community leaders, and private sector actors play distinct roles in shaping outcomes related to air quality, land use, and agricultural sustainability. To foster coordinated action, communication must be timely, evidence based, context specific, and inclusive.

For farmers and agricultural stakeholders, simplified tools such as real-time AQI alerts, visual risk maps, and community workshops can increase awareness of pollution related crop risks and promote adaptive practices (e.g., precision fertilizer use, planting tolerant crop varieties, and adopting clean technologies) [142]. Capacity-building programs should translate scientific findings into practical guidance tailored to local realities.

Policymakers require synthesized, policy-relevant information supported by robust data and scenario modeling. Policy briefs, impact assessments, and economic analyses that quantify the cost of inaction versus the benefits of intervention are especially effective [143]. These should be combined with success stories from comparable regions to demonstrate feasibility and co-benefits for public health, food security, and climate resilience.

Engaging local governments and community leaders is equally important as they are often responsible for implementing policies on the ground. Providing them with decentralized data, user-friendly monitoring tools, and access to technical expertise ensures accountability and responsiveness. Finally, strategic communication that bridges the gap between science, practice, and policy is critical to achieving sustainable and equitable air quality management. Hence, messaging should be tailored to different audiences, promoting transparency, while fostering inclusive stakeholder engagement. This will enhance the uptake of mitigation strategies and ensure long-term success.

5. Policy Implications and Directions for Future Research

5.1. Integrating Air Quality and Agricultural Policies

A key policy priority is to better coordinate air pollution control efforts with agricultural development plans. Presently, air quality management and agricultural productivity are often addressed separately, despite the fact that many farming activities such as fertilizer use, livestock rearing, and crop residue burning significantly contribute to emissions of pollutants like ammonia (NH₃), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) [44,144]. An integrated policy framework would align emission reduction goals with sustainable farming practices by implementing regulations, incentives, and support programs. This might include encouraging precision agriculture, agroforestry, and environmentally safe fertilizers to ensure that improvements in air quality do not come at the expense of food production, and vice versa.

5.2. The Role of International Collaboration

Since air pollution crosses national borders, global cooperation is essential. Developing countries, which often experience the greatest pollution burdens due to industrial emissions, biomass burning, and weaker regulatory enforcement [145,146], require international assistance. Multilateral agreements and institutions such as the Green Climate Fund and the UNECE Convention can provide financial resources, technology transfer, and policy guidance. Collaborative efforts are also necessary for tracking transboundary pollution, establishing common targets, and ensuring accountability [147]. Successful implementation depends on fairness, openness, and shared commitment to emission reductions and support for vulnerable communities.

5.3. Addressing Data Gaps and Research Priorities

Significant gaps persist in understanding how different air pollutants interact and impact agricultural systems [148]. For instance, high ozone concentrations can reduce crop yields, while fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) may interfere with photosynthesis [14]. Yet, the combined effects of multiple pollutants under actual field conditions remain underexplored. Variations in crop responses across different climates and regions further complicate generalizations. Therefore, region-specific, long-term studies are urgently needed to assess how pollution influences plant physiology, soil health, and overall productivity. Advancing pollutant monitoring systems and enhancing crop modeling capabilities are crucial to addressing these knowledge deficits.

5.4. Prioritizing Funding and Multidisciplinary Research

Protecting food security amid environmental change calls for investment in interdisciplinary studies. Funding bodies and governments should emphasize research that integrates atmospheric science, agronomy, public health, and economics. Focus areas should include developing pollution-resistant crop varieties and scalable mitigation strategies that operate from farm-level practices to national supply chains. Building capacity in low-and-middle income countries is particularly important, as they often lack the infrastructure and expertise to monitor pollution or apply sophisticated mitigation methods. Partnerships across academia, industry, and government sectors can facilitate the translation of research into effective policies. Figure 2 shows the discussed policy implications and directions for future research.

6. Conclusions and Future Perspectives

This study highlights the profound and multidimensional threat that deteriorating air quality poses to global food security. Rapid industrialization, urban expansion, and population growth have led to increased emissions of harmful air pollutants, including ground-level ozone, fine particulate matter (PM_2.5 and PM₁₀), nitrogen and sulfur oxides, and volatile organic compounds. These pollutants have direct and indirect effects on agricultural systems. They significantly reduce crop yields, degrade soil quality, and disrupt the ecological balance necessary for sustainable food production. In particular, ground-level ozone has been shown to inhibit photosynthesis and damage plant tissues, while particulate matter can impair plant growth and alter soil biochemistry.

This study emphasizes the urgent need for integrated policy frameworks that align air quality management with agricultural and environmental goals. Agricultural activities such as fertilizer use, livestock emissions, and crop residue burning are significant sources of air pollutants. They should be regulated through policies that encourage sustainable farming practices, such as precision agriculture, agroforestry, and the use of eco-friendly inputs.

Mitigation strategies should be multi-stakeholder and cross-sectoral, targeting emission sources in both urban and rural contexts. Technological and economic approaches, such as electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, flue gas desulfurization, carbon taxes, and emissions trading systems, are vital for reducing industrial emissions. In agriculture, emerging technologies including drones, satellite data, IoT-enabled soil sensors, biogas digesters, controlled-release fertilizers, and biological nitrification inhibitors, offer promise for reducing emissions and improving resource efficiency. However, widespread adoption of these innovations, especially in resource-limited settings, requires supportive policy environments and robust capacity-building initiatives.

Urban planning measures such as green infrastructure, low-emission zones, and transit-oriented development can further reduce air pollution and indirectly benefit agricultural productivity. Meanwhile, community-based interventions and public awareness campaigns are also crucial for long-term behavioral change. Real-time air quality index (AQI) data, educational programs, and digital outreach tools can empower individuals and communities to make informed choices and advocate for cleaner environments, fostering a culture of environmental responsibility.

In conclusion, safeguarding global food security in the face of worsening air quality requires urgent, coordinated, and well-funded action. It demands an integrated approach that spans policy reform, technological innovation, international collaboration, public engagement, and scientific research. Long-term, region-specific studies are essential to understand the complex interactions between pollutants and agricultural systems. At the same time, investments in pollution-resistant crop varieties, sustainable energy, and robust monitoring infrastructure must be prioritized. Only through comprehensive and inclusive strategies can we ensure a resilient food system capable of sustaining current and future generations amid the escalating challenges of air pollution and environmental change.