Associations Between Preschool Bedroom Television and Subsequent Psycho-Social Risks Amplified by Extracurricular Childhood Sport

Abstract

Background: Preschool bedroom television placement represents an established risk factor for negative psychological and behavioral outcomes in adolescence. Girls and boys have different risk factors for developmental psychopathology. It is unclear if childhood sport participation can act as a protective factor for the potential maladaptive behaviors associated with having a bedroom television in early childhood. Methods: This study aims to evaluate the impact of having a bedroom television in early childhood on later externalizing behaviors while examining the potential beneficial role of extracurricular sport participation in middle childhood using the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (Canada). We examine subsequent teacher-reported psycho-social outcomes by the end of sixth grade. Linear regression is used to examine the interaction between child-reported bedroom television placement (age 4 years) and parent-reported childhood sport participation trajectories (ages 6 to 10 years) in predicting behavioral outcomes at age 12 years. Results: For boys, extracurricular sport amplified the relationship between having a preschool bedroom television and subsequent physical aggression (b = 0.95, SE = 0.32, p < 0.001) and ADHD symptoms (b = 0.59, SE = 0.30, p ≤ 0.05), beyond individual and family characteristics. No interaction results were found for girls; however, consistent sport participation between ages 6 and 10 years resulted in a decrease in ADHD symptoms in girls (b = −0.329, SE = 0.102, p ≤ 0.001). Conclusion: Unexpectedly, for boys exposed to early bedroom television, consistently participating in extracurricular sport in childhood exacerbated long-term behavioral risks. Social unpreparedness from bedroom television placement countered the intended benefits of sport. This private access to screens might influence sedentary, unsupervised, isolated activity that increases the chances of viewing violence and reduces opportunities for social interaction.

1. Introduction

The quantity and accessibility of screens among youth have increased around the world [1], making screen-free households less common today [2]. This digital trend is alarming as it relates to youth accessing screens, making them more likely to transgress various health guidelines, notably, those regarding daily screen time. Screen use recommendations for children aged 2 to 5 years suggest not surpassing one hour per day of total screen time [3]. A recent systematic review and meta-analysis revealed risks associated with exceeding recommended guidelines and later symptoms of depression, anxiety, aggression, and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) by age 12 years [4].

Private screen access represents one of the main predictors of excessive screen time in children [5]. In fact, children with a television in their bedroom have higher levels of screen time than those who do not [6]. The amount of screen time is consistently associated with externalizing behavior, with greater effects for boys than for girls [4]. Moreover, children with private access to a bedroom television are also at greater risk of unsupervised viewing and consuming developmentally inappropriate content [7]. This type of television content is an important correlate of externalizing behavior [8].

These associations are further reinforced by previous studies revealing that early childhood bedroom television placement can be a long-term risk factor for developing physical aggression in adolescence [8]. Other longitudinal studies have found long-term associations between childhood exposure to media violence, which is more likely consumed with bedroom television access, and aggressive, even violent, behavior five and ten years later [5,9]. Moreover, a cohort study suggests that the risks for hyperactive/impulsive and inattentive behavior in early childhood are increased among children who have a television in the bedroom, further highlighting the influence of private television access on executive functioning difficulties [10]. These associations transcend the potential confounding effects of social and environmental characteristics associated with poverty that are correlated with bedroom screen placement, excessive screen time, and reduced executive functions.

The risks associated with bedroom screens are best understood through the time displacement concept [11]. As noted, bedroom screens predict overall excess screen time. Consequentially, too much screen time creates a dilemma where the child is not spending as much time engaging in other enriching activities, reducing opportunities for positive child development. We argue that children who have a screen in the bedroom might allocate more solitary time confined to their private space and less time interacting with others. Thus, suboptimal psycho-social development can lead to inadequate child abilities in certain structured contexts such as classrooms and sporting activities [12,13].

A recent framework known as the positive youth development theory suggests a plethora of potential protective experiences in the context of being exposed to risk factors [14]. One such experience is organized sport participation [15]. Through this activity, children can engage their inherent potential to flourish by cultivating five core qualities (known as the 5Cs): competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring. These qualities are foundational for developing essential capacities such as socio-emotional and cognitive skills, empathy, self-control, self-worth, and fair play.

Taking both theories together, the time displacement conceptualization suggests that children with a bedroom television may allocate less time to enriching activities that may contribute positively to development, such as engaging in team sports, practicing social interaction with other children, and developing emotional self-regulation. The consequences of investing less time in these activities may deprive children of a medium where energy can be expended, where emotions can be regulated through movement, and where positive peer interaction skills can be learned. Research suggests that sport participation during childhood contributes to later skill development and flourishing [16] and reduces psychological distress [17], for example, alleviating ADHD symptoms [18]. It would, therefore, appear that organized sport during childhood could act as a protective factor for long-term psycho-social difficulties in at-risk children, such as those with a bedroom television, although this has yet to be documented.

Existing research presents methodological limitations, including either cross-sectional designs or a lack of control for competing explanations despite a longitudinal design. This study aims to isolate the relationships between variables by accounting for pre-existing and concurrent confounding factors. Moreover, little is currently known about the possible mechanisms that can counter the risks associated with early bedroom television. Lastly, due to the portability and accessibility of screens, it has become increasingly difficult to measure the screen time experience and private access to screens. Having access to historical data on television placement may help more accurately facilitate the estimation of the proposed relationship.

Importantly, although past studies have demonstrated sex differences in mental health outcomes [19], sport participation patterns [20], and screen habits [21], most studies examining the relationship between childhood screen use and later outcomes tend to control for sex. For instance, boys are documented to be at greater risk than girls for externalizing problems such as antisocial characteristics, including agitation and aggression toward peers [22], and are more likely to display traits of ADHD [23]. Boys are also more likely to consume violent media content, which is an established risk factor for developing aggressive behavior [24]. This highlights that boys and girls experience risk and protective factors differently due to unique biological and contextual influences and should be compared to their same-sex counterparts [25].

This study aims to address these previously mentioned gaps in research. The purpose is to investigate the putative protective role of middle childhood participation in organized extracurricular sport in the relationship between having a bedroom television during preschool years and psycho-social outcomes by the end of sixth grade. More specifically, we examine whether sport participation between ages 6 and 10 years moderates the association between early bedroom television at age 4 years and later ADHD symptoms and physical aggression at age 12 years, hypothesizing a protective effect of sport participation on behavior.

2. Methods

2.1. Participants

This IRB-approved longitudinal study uses data from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (CEREP-2022-3024; QLSCD; https://www.iamillbe.stat.gouv.qc.ca/ accessed on 18 September 2025) coordinated by the Institut de la Statistique du Québec. The initial sample consisted of 2837 infants randomly selected from a birth registry and born between 1997 and 1998. The sample included children from single births to mothers residing in Quebec, Canada. Children were deemed ineligible for this study if they were born highly premature and/or were residing in Nord-du-Québec, Nunavik, or Terres-Cries-de-la-Baie-James at the time of data collection. After informed consent, participant data were collected from ages 5 months to 12 years annually during early childhood and biennially during school years through interviews and self-reported questionnaires administered to parents, children, and teachers. A subsample of 684 boys and 707 girls with complete data on bedroom television at age 4 years and sport participation habits between ages 6 and 10 years was retained. Participant response rates are shown in Figure 1.

2.2. Measures

Predictor Variable. Bedroom Television (Age 4 years). During an interview, the child reported on bedroom television placement, specifically, if the child had a television in the bedroom, which generated categorical responses (0 = no, 1 = yes).

Outcome Variables (Age 12 years). Teachers reported on child physical aggression and ADHD symptoms in the past 6 months using the Social Behavior Questionnaire (SBQ) [26]. Child physical aggression was measured using 10 items (α = 0.90: child getting into fights; encouraged other children to pick on a particular child; reacted in an aggressive manner when teased; tried to dominate other children; reacted in an aggressive manner when contradicted; scared other children to get what they wanted; reacting with anger and fighting in situations; hit, bit, or kicked other children; and reacted aggressively when something was taken away). Child ADHD symptoms included inattentive, hyperactive, and distractible behaviors, which were measured using 9 items (α = 0.91: was inattentive; has trouble listening attentively, appears easily distracted, and has trouble sticking to any activity; was unable to concentrate for long, could not sit still, was restless and hyperactive; could not stop fidgeting; difficulty waiting his or her turn; and was impulsive or acted without thinking). All items were rated on a Likert scale, with response options including never or not true (1), sometimes or somewhat true (2), and often or very true (3). For each outcome, a mean score was calculated and transformed into a standardized scale from 0 to 10, where a higher score indicates more problematic behavior.

Moderator Variable: Sport Participation Trajectory (Ages 6, 7, 8, and 10 years). Mothers reported on child sport participation habits over the last 12 months at ages 6, 7, and 8 years (2 items): Outside of school hours, how often does your child (A) take part in sports with a coach or instructor (with the exception of dance and gymnastics courses) and (B) take organized physical activity lessons or classes such as dance, gymnastics, martial arts, or circus arts? Both items were rated on a Likert scale, with response options including never to roughly every day. At age 10 years, mothers reported on their child’s sport participation across 3 items: How many times a week has your child participated in (A) organized sports or physical activity with a coach or instructor this last summer (lessons, classes, or team sports) and (B) extracurricular sports with an instructor or coach since September? and (C) Outside of school, how many times per week has your child practiced physical activity or organized sport since September? These items were rated on a Likert scale, with response options including never to five times a week or more. All items were recoded as 0 = no participation and 1 = any participation. Using Growth Mixture Modeling, Brière and colleagues [27] derived two trajectories of sport participation across four time points: low–inconsistent participation and consistent participation. Previous studies have underlined the predictive validity of these trajectories [28].

Pre-existing and Concurrent Control Variables (Ages 5 months to 12 years). To account for pre-existing individual and family confounding factors, we identified theoretically or statistically relevant characteristics. Family characteristics include a scale of maternal depressive symptoms at 5 months (13 items, α = 0.81; CES-D) [29,30], maternal education at 5 months (0 = post-secondary education or above, 1 = high-school diploma or below), family dysfunction at 5 months (12 items, α = 0.88; 0 = below the median, 1 = above the median; McMaster Family Assessment Device) [31], and family income at 2 years as defined by the Canadian Low-Income Cut-Off for that year provided by Statistics Canada (0 = above the median, 1 = below the median). Individual characteristics include child temperament problems at 1.5 years (0 = below the median, 1 = above the median; Infant Characteristics Questionnaire) [32] and neurocognitive skills at 2 years (0 = above the median, 1 = below the median; Imitation Sorting Task) [33]. Baseline physical aggression (10 items, α = 0.76) and ADHD symptoms (8 items, α = 0.81) at age 3.5 years from the SBQ [26] were also included as they represent a predisposition to later externalizing behaviors [34]. Finally, given that bedroom television placement at age 4 years was highly correlated with later bedroom television, we also controlled for concurrent bedroom television at age 12 years. Detailed coding of control variables and item examples are presented in

Table A1. Sources, coding, scales, and question examples for control variables.

Variable	Coding	Source/Instrument	Answer Scale	Example of Questions Asked
Maternal depressive symptoms (5 months)	Standardized scale 0–10	Center for Epidemiological Studies—Depression Scale (CES-D) short form [29,30]	Likert scale: (1) Rarely or never to (4) Most of the time or always	“I felt depressed”, “I had restless sleep”, “I cried”, etc.
Maternal education (5 months)	Dichotomous: 0 = Higher than high school, 1 = High school or less	Not applicable	Likert scale: (1) No high school diploma to (7) University diploma	“What is the highest level of education you have completed?”
Family dysfunction (5 months)	Dichotomous: 0 = Below the median, 1 = Above the median	McMaster Family Functioning Scale [31]	Likert scale: (1) Entirely agree to (4) Entirely disagree	“We are able to make decisions on how to solve our problems together.”
Family income (2 years)	Dichotomous: 0 = Above the median, 1 = Below the median	Based on Statistics Canada’s Low-Income Cut-Off (LICO)	9-point Likert: (1) <$10 k to (9) >$80 k	“Which of the following categories best represents your household’s income?”
Child temperament problems (1.5 years)	Dichotomous: 0 = More problematic than median, 1 = Less problematic than median	Infant Characteristics Questionnaire [32]	Likert scales: e.g., (0) Never to (6) 15+ times/day	“On average, how many times per day does your child become fussy and irritable?”
Neurocognitive skills (2 years)	Dichotomous: 0 = Above median, 1 = Below median	Imitation Sorting Task [33]	Performance score/task: (0) Failed, (1) Success	Child asked to replicate a demonstrated object-sorting sequence (evaluates working memory)
Physical aggression (3.5 years)	Standardized scale 0–10	Social Behavior Questionnaire [26]	Likert scale: (1) Never or not true to (3) Often or very true	“In the past 3 months, how often has your child been in a fight?”
ADHD symptoms (3.5 years)	Standardized scale 0–10	Social Behavior Questionnaire [26]	Likert scale: (1) Never or not true to (3) Often or very true	“In the past 12 months, how often was the child restless, fidgety, or hyperactive?”
Bedroom television (12 years)	Dichotomous: 0 = Yes, 1 = No	Not applicable	Not applicable	“I have the following things in my bedroom: a television.”

.

2.3. Data Analytic Strategy

A series of Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) multiple linear regressions were conducted with SPSS (v.26) in addition to PROCESS macro (4.0) to examine the interaction between child-reported bedroom television placement (age 4 years) and parent-reported childhood sport participation trajectories (ages 6 to 10 years) in predicting teacher-reported behavioral outcomes at age 12 years. To account for possible third-variable bias, we estimated this relationship by including pre-existing and concurrent child and family characteristics in each model. Baseline psycho-social risks at age 3.5 years were included according to the specific outcome assessed in the model. Statistical analyses were conducted separately for boys and girls.

As the present study required data from several sources and data collection waves, we conducted an attrition analysis comparing participants with complete and incomplete data on the retained sample. Attrition analyses (t-tests and chi-square analyses) were conducted to examine differences on predictor, moderator, and control variables between participants with complete data and those with incomplete data on outcome variables (21.1% for boys and 26.5% for girls). The results of these analyses are presented in Appendix A. We corrected for response and attrition bias using multiple imputation using fully conditional specifications. In this process, outcome variables were imputed, while independent variables were included in the model as predictors. We then aggregated 5 imputed datasets to compute moderation analyses. Results were considered significant at p < 0.05, two-tailed. Similar results were found in the non-imputed and imputed analyses.

3. Results

Table 1. Raw descriptive statistics for predictor, moderator, outcome, and control variables for boys and girls.

	Boys (N = 684)		Girls (N = 707)
	M (SD)	Categorical Variables (%)	M (SD)	Categorical Variables (%)	Range
Predictor variable (4 years)
Bedroom television					-
0 = No	-	84.80	-	89.00
1 = Yes	-	15.20	-	11.00
Moderator variable (6–10 years)
Sport participation trajectory
0 = Low–inconsistent participation	-	38.90	-	40.40	-
1 = Consistent participation	-	61.10	-	59.60	-
Outcome variables (12 years)
Physical aggression	1.53 (1.38)	-	0.66 (0.80)	-	0.00–10.00
ADHD symptoms	3.10 (1.93)	-	1.57 (1.29)	-	0.00–10.00
Pre-existing control variables
Maternal depressive symptoms (5 mo)	1.34 (1.32)	-	1.27 (1.19)	-	0.00–10.00
Maternal education (5 mo)
0 = Post-secondary education or above	-	60.50	-	57.30	-
1 = High-school diploma or below	-	39.50	-	41.70	-
Family dysfunction (5 mo)
0 = Below the median	-	55.80	-	53.20	-
1 = Above the median	-	44.20	-	45.60	-
Family income (2 years)
0 = Above the median	-	5.10	-	7.80	-
1 = Below the median	-	94.90	-	90.00	-
Child temperament problems (1.5 years)
0 = Below the median	-	52.30	-	44.40	-
1 = Above the median	-	47.70	-	39.60	-
Neurocognitive skills (2 years)
0 = Above the median	-	78.90	-	73.10	-
1 = Below the median	-	21.10	-	18.40	-
Concurrent control variables
Physical aggression (3.5 years)	2.13 (1.37)	-	1.83 (1.30)	-	0.00–10.00
ADHD symptoms (3.5 years)	4.25 (1.99)	-	3.68 (1.81)	-	0.00–10.00
Bedroom television (12 years)
0 = No	-	60.80	-	68.30	-
1 = Yes	-	39.20	-	31.70	-

Notes. M = mean; mo = months; SD = standard deviation. For all control variables, the risk factor is represented by a higher score. Analyses corrected for attrition bias. Data were compiled from the final master file of the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (1997–2019), ©Gouvernement du Québec, Institut de la Statistique du Québec.

reports the descriptive statistics for predictor, moderator, outcome, and control variables. Within the study sample, 15% of boys and 11% of girls had a bedroom television. Moreover, 61% of boys and 59% of girls were in the consistent sport participation trajectory. At age 12 years, the average scores for physical aggression were 1.53 (SD = 1.38) for boys and 0.66 (SD = 0.80) for girls. For ADHD symptoms, the average score for boys was 3.10 (SD = 1.93) and 1.57 (SD = 1.29) for girls. Given that scores are on a scale from 0 to 10, low mean scores indicate positively skewed data and suggest a sample of typically developing children with few behavioral problems.

Table 2. Unstandardized OLS regression coefficients (standard error) reflecting the adjusted relationship between baseline child and family characteristics from ages 5 months to 12 years and bedroom television at age 4 years and sport participation trajectories between ages 6 and 10 years for boys and girls.

	b (SE)
	Bedroom Television (4 Years)		Sport Participation Trajectories (6 to 10 Years)
	Boys	Girls	Boys	Girls
Pre-existing control variables
Maternal depressive symptoms (5 mo)	0.018 (0.011)	−0.003 (0.010)	0.007 (0.015)	0.005 (0.016)
Maternal education (5 mo)	0.015 (0.027)	0.036 (0.024)	−0.253 (0.038) ***	−0.147 (0.039) ***
Family dysfunction (5 mo)	0.020 (0.027)	0.034 (0.023)	−0.080 (0.037) *	0.063 (0.038)
Family income (2 years)	−0.016 (0.059)	−0.046 (0.060)	0.252 (0.081) **	0.207 (0.100) *
Child temperament problems (1.5 years)	0.002 (0.026)	−0.049 (0.023) *	0.012 (0.036)	0.039 (0.037)
Neurocognitive skills (2 years)	0.056 (0.031)	−0.031 (0.027)	0.053 (0.043)	0.071 (0.045)
Concurrent control variables
Physical aggression (3.5 years)	−0.009 (0.010)	−0.023 (0.009) **	0.014 (0.013)	0.000 (0.014)
ADHD symptoms (3.5 years)	0.013 (0.007) *	0.002 (0.006)	−0.001 (0.009)	−0.012 (0.010)
Bedroom television (12 years)	0.225 (0.027) ***	0.145 (0.025) ***	−0.137 (0.037) ***	0.046 (0.041)
R2	0.132 ***	0.080 ***	0.159 ***	0.064 ***

Notes. * p ≤ 0.05, ** p ≤ 0.01, *** p ≤ 0.001. mo = months; SE = standard error. For all control variables, the risk factor is designated by a higher score. Analyses corrected for attrition bias. Data were compiled from the final master file of the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (1997–2019), ©Gouvernement du Québec, Institut de la Statistique du Québec.

reports the adjusted unstandardized OLS regression coefficients for the relationship between baseline child and family characteristics from ages 5 months to 12 years and bedroom television at age 4 years and sport participation trajectories between ages 6 and 10 years. For boys and girls, having a bedroom television at age 4 years was strongly associated with higher probabilities of having a later bedroom television at age 12 years (boys: standardized β = 0.310, p < 0.001; girls: standardized β = 0.214, p < 0.001). Boys having more ADHD symptoms at age 3.5 years were more likely to have a bedroom television at age 4 years (standardized β = 0.076, p < 0.05). This was not the case for girls. Girls who reported having a bedroom television during preschool had lower scores on physical aggression at age 3.5 years (standardized β = −0.088, p < 0.05) and less problematic temperament during childhood at age 1.5 years (standardized β = 0.257, p < 0.01). No such results were observed in boys. Boys and girls of mothers whose highest diploma was high school or below were more likely to participate inconsistently in sport from ages 6 to 10 years (boys: standardized β = −0.256, p < 0.001; girls: standardized β = −0.129, p < 0.001). Interestingly, boys and girls whose families were below the low-income threshold were more likely to be in the consistent sport participation trajectory (boys: standardized β = 0.114, p < 0.01; girls: standardized β = 0.079, p < 0.05). Finally, boys who experienced more family dysfunction at age 5 months (standardized β = −0.156, p < 0.001) and boys who reported bedroom television placement at age 12 years had a higher probability of being in the low–inconsistent sport trajectory during childhood (standardized β = −0.137, p < 0.001).

Table 3. Unstandardized OLS regression coefficients (standard error) reflecting the adjusted direct relationship between bedroom television at age 4 years and physical aggression at age 12 years and moderation effect by sport participation trajectories between ages 6 and 10 years for boys and girls.

	Physical Aggression (Age 12 Years)
	Boys		Girls
	b (SE)	95% CI	b (SE)	95% CI
Interaction
Sport participation trajectory (6–10 years) x Bedroom television (4 years)	0.736 (0.287) **	0.172, 1.299	0.342 (0.203)	−0.057, 0.740
Moderator variable
Sport participation trajectory (6–10 years)	−0.129 (0.118)	−0.361, 0.102	−0.191 (0.065) **	−0.318, −0.062
Predictor variable
Bedroom television (4 years)	0.2179 (0.213)	−0.180, 0.615	−0.323 (0.156) *	−0.629, −0.017
Pre-existing control variables
Maternal depressive symptoms (5 mo)	0.145 (0.041) ***	0.064, 0.227	0.015 (0.265)	−0.037, 0.066
Maternal education (5 mo)	−0.201 (0.111)	−0.142, 0.016	0.191 (0.065) **	−0.063, 0.319
Family dysfunction (5 mo)	−0.084 (0.107)	−0.106, 0.049	−0.027 (0.063)	−0.150, 0.097
Family income (2 years)	−0.489 (0.232)	−0.198, −0.014	−0.393 (0.166) **	−0.718, −0.067
Child temperament problems (1.5 years)	−0.369 (0.103) ***	−0.218, −0.069	0.010 (0.061)	−0.110, 0.130
Neurocognitive skills (2 years)	0.364 (0.122) **	0.032, 0.177	−0.042 (0.074)	−0.103, 0.187
Concurrent control variables
Physical aggression (3.5 years)	0.192 (0.037) ***	0.118, 0.263	0.073 (0.024) **	0.026, 0.119
ADHD symptoms (3.5 years)	-	-	-	-
Bedroom television (12 years)	0.227 (0.115) *	0.003, 0.163	−0.012 (0.070)	−0.150, 0.126
R2	0.1334 ***		0.0609 ***

Notes. * p ≤ 0.05, ** p ≤ 0.01, *** p ≤ 0.001. CI = confidence interval; mo = months; SE = standard error. For all control variables, the risk factor is designated by a higher score. Analyses corrected for attrition bias. Data were compiled from the final master file of the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (1997–2019), ©Gouvernement du Québec, Institut de la Statistique du Québec.

documents the adjusted unstandardized OLS regression coefficients reflecting the direct relationship between bedroom television at age 4 years and later physical aggression at age 12 years and the moderation effects of sport participation trajectories between ages 6 and 10 years for boys and girls. For girls, both having a bedroom television at age 4 years (standardized β = −0.175, p < 0.001) and consistent sport participation between ages 6 and 10 years (standardized β = −0.094, p < 0.01) predicted significantly lower subsequent physical aggression.

For boys, sport participation trajectories between ages 6 and 10 years significantly moderated the relationship between bedroom television at age 4 years and physical aggression outcome at age 12 years. This interaction amplified the association between having a bedroom television and later physical aggression (standardized β = 0.096, p ≤ 0.01). Specifically, boys with a television in their bedroom as toddlers saw a significantly greater increase in physical aggression at age 12 years when they had consistently participated in sport (standardized β = 0.2537, p < 0.001). Figure 2 illustrates the decomposition of this interaction. No interaction results were found in girls.

Table 4. Unstandardized OLS regression coefficients (standard error) reflecting the adjusted direct relationship between bedroom television at age 4 years and ADHD symptoms at age 12 years and moderation effect by sport participation trajectories between ages 6 and 10 years for boys and girls.

	ADHD Symptoms (Age 12 Years)
	Boys		Girls
	b (SE)	95% CI	b (SE)	95% CI
Interaction
Sport participation trajectory (6–10 years) x Bedroom television (4 years)	0.818 (0.409) *	0.150, 1.621	0.368 (0.318)	−0.256, 0.993
Moderator variable
Sport participation trajectory (6–10 years)	−0.006 (0.168)	−0.397, 0.263	−0.329 (0.102) ***	−0.529, −0.128
Predictor variable
Bedroom television (4 years)	−0.232 (0.288)	−0.798, 0.334	−0.087 (0.243)	−0.565, 0.390
Pre-existing control variables
Maternal depressive symptoms (5 mo)	0.152 (0.059) **	0.027, 0.194	0.024 (0.042)	−0.058, 0.1053
Maternal education (5 mo)	0.190 (0.157)	−0.031, 0.130	0.263 (0.102) **	0.062, 0.463
Family dysfunction (5 mo)	−0.081 (0.152)	−0.100, 0.057	−0.056 (0.099)	−0.250, 0.138
Family income (2 years)	0.642 (0.330)	−0.000, 0.185	−0.856 (0.259) ***	−1.365, −0.346
Child temperament problems (1.5 years)	−0.339 (0.143) *	−0.164, −0.015	−0.038 (0.094)	−0.223, 0.147
Neurocognitive skills (2 years)	0.186 (0.174)	−0.033, 0.113	0.377 (0.116) ***	0.149, 0.603
Concurrent control variables
Physical aggression (3.5 years)	-	-	-	-
ADHD symptoms (3.5 years)	−0.818 (0.409) *	0.152, 0.305	0.118 (0.026) ***	0.067, 0.169
Bedroom television (12 years)	0.304 (0.159)	−0.002, 0.161	0.191 (0.110)	−0.025, 0.406
R2	0.1029 ***		0.1097 ***

Notes. * p ≤ 0.05, ** p ≤ 0.01, *** p ≤ 0.001. CI = confidence interval; mo = months; SE = standard error. For all control variables, the risk factor is designated by a higher score. Analyses corrected for attrition bias. Data were compiled from the final master file of the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (1997–2019), ©Gouvernement du Québec, Institut de la Statistique du Québec.

documents the adjusted OLS unstandardized regression coefficients reflecting the direct relationship between bedroom television at age 4 years and later ADHD symptoms at age 12 years and the moderation effects by sport participation trajectories between ages 6 and 10 years for boys and girls. Early bedroom television at age 4 years did not predict an increase in later ADHD symptoms among boys and girls. For girls, consistent sport participation between ages 6 and 10 years predicted a decrease in ADHD symptoms (standardized β = −0.105, p < 0.01). For boys, sport participation between ages 6 and 10 years significantly amplified the relationship between bedroom television at age 4 years and ADHD symptoms at age 12 years (standardized β = 0.076, p < 0.05). Specifically, boys in the consistent sport participation trajectory had a greater increase in ADHD-related symptoms at age 12 years when they had a television in their bedroom at age 4 years (standardized β = 0.1114, p < 0.05). Figure 3 illustrates the decomposition of this interaction. No significant interaction was found for girls.

4. Discussion

The portability and plurality of screens have increased the potential for unsupervised and excessive screen time in young children [35]. Private screen access at a young age reduces child engagement in other developmentally enriching activities [36]. Due to its sedentary and isolating nature, early childhood bedroom television placement contributes to less optimal behavioral and interpersonal skill development during a critical period, jeopardizing their ability to later adequately participate in organized sports [37]. Our findings surprisingly suggest that consistent sport participation during childhood can act as an aggravating factor for externalizing behaviors in boys growing up with a bedroom television. On the other hand, although girls experienced the positive effects of sport participation, these did not moderate the association between having a bedroom television in preschool and later behaviors.

Notably, girls who consistently participated in sport exhibited less physical aggression and fewer ADHD symptoms later in their development, irrespective of bedroom television placement. Opportunities for consistent sport participation for girls serve to enhance their development of positive peer social skills and competencies such as cooperation [38], promoting flourishing and mental health (i.e., lower levels of aggression and ADHD symptoms). This suggests that organized sport participation represents a general protective factor in girls. Similarly, having a television in their bedroom in preschool was associated with less subsequent physical aggression. This may be explained by girls’ preference for relational content, which contributes to acquiring prosocial skills and reducing aggression [39]. Together, these findings have interesting implications that warrant further investigation. Specifically, it remains unclear whether bedroom television serves as a protective factor for girls or if its associated risks manifest in other problematic outcomes that were not investigated in the current study, such as internalizing behaviors.

Distinctly, boys growing up with private television access displayed more physical aggression, although not significantly so. Still, this relationship was exacerbated by participating consistently in organized sport, compared to less frequent participation. Comparably, boys who participated consistently in sport throughout middle childhood and had a bedroom television also had the highest levels of ADHD symptoms. Unsupervised television content may exacerbate the amplified externalizing behaviors in boys who participate consistently in sport, given their predisposition to consuming more violent content—known to increase aggression, impulsivity, and poor self-control [4,40].

Mainly, these surprising findings can be understood through person–environment (PE) misfit, which occurs when an individual’s abilities do not coincide with environmental demands [41]. This discrepancy manifests itself in undesired behaviors arising from discomfort, withdrawal, and stress. By having a television in their bedroom, these children may be displacing time away from positive family and peer interactions and exploring the outside environment, reducing their opportunities to practice inhibition and self-regulation behaviors. Over time, the built-up social unpreparedness and underdeveloped self-regulation exacerbate PE misfit and become evident in structured social contexts, notably, in sports, which require collaboration and compliance with a set of rules. For these boys, the expected benefits of extracurricular sport participation in childhood are offset, and the long-term risks associated with early bedroom television placement are exacerbated.

This study is not without limitations. Firstly, due to the exploratory nature of our methodology, we cannot imply causal relationships. We have, however, presented a timeline of sequential events and attempted to isolate our findings by accounting for pre-existing and concurrent confounders. Second, our study was vulnerable to attrition due to its longitudinal nature, which was addressed with multiple imputation to correct for potential biases [42]. Third, the interaction with ADHD symptoms presents p values near 0.05. Although this is considered statistically significant at 5 chances in 100, the risk of false positive findings (Type I error) remains a possibility. Nevertheless, we observed significant interaction effects for two independent externalizing factors (aggression and ADHD symptoms); thus, the convergence of both results renders the chances of a Type I error dubious. Next, our measures of bedroom television and sport participation were limited to the available data collected within a larger study on child development. As such, we did not account for viewing time or type of content. For sport participation, no measures of child behavior during those activities (e.g., aggressive, cooperative), type of sport, or family support were available. Yet, despite these limitations in our measures, our findings reveal that beyond these specific characteristics, bedroom television placement and sport participation of any type with an instructor were important contributors to later behavior. Lastly, it is important to mention the potential limitations associated with recall and information bias as it relates to mother- and teacher-reported data. Nevertheless, this study presents important strengths. These include the prospective longitudinal design and multiple data sources reporting on the variables of interest. These analyses also account for critical covariates known to be related to child behavioral outcomes at age 12 years (e.g., family socioeconomic status, family dysfunction, early child behavior problems), making the results robust to the effects of these background characteristics. In addition, by examining the impact of bedroom television in a cohort of millennial children, we overcome the current complexities in measuring private screen access considering the accessibility and portability of screens today. Finally, our study considers the importance of observing boys and girls separately, as they experience distinct risk and protective factors.

Specifically, this study brings forth distinct results for boys and girls that support tailoring policies stratified by sex. Specifically, boys who have grown up with a bedroom television may not be adequately equipped to participate or to meet the demands of consistent structured sport activities, which may result in a greater manifestation of maladaptive behavior. On the other hand, girls experienced the expected benefits of physical activity independently of having a bedroom television. Recommendations from the Canadian Paediatric Society suggest keeping child bedrooms a screen-free environment [43], which has become challenging given more transportable and accessible technology [7]. However, given that girls experienced seemingly protective benefits from having a bedroom television, there are components to screen use that are not fully understood and merit further investigation to promote accurate and healthy media use, specifically as it relates to screen placement. Furthermore, it is imperative that sport-related interventions aimed at targeting positive youth development are individually tailored to child capacities, taking into consideration individual (e.g., sex) and environmental (e.g., presence of screens in the bedroom) factors when including a child in sport. Given that sport participation is known to support optimal development, we recommend that policymakers, parents, teachers, and clinicians identify possible risk factors in boys and girls (e.g., maternal education and family income) that can inhibit the child from flourishing in these contexts and, consequently, adapting to the environment.