Study of Influencing Factors in Consumer Attitude, Consumption, and Purchasing Frequency in the Market of Flour and Bakery Products in Greece

Abstract

(1) Background: This research aims to determine the main factors that influence: (i) purchase decisions for flour and bakery products, (ii) consumer preferences, attitudes, and consumption frequency of those products, and (iii) the degree of knowledge and confidence in innovative functional food products. (2) Methods: Questionnaires were randomly distributed to 639 Greek citizens aged 18–75 years. The statistical analysis included Chi-Square, Kruskal–Walis H, and Mann–Whitney U tests, and Spearman correlations. (3) Results: Flour purchasing decisions were influenced by age, income, marital status, and education, while bakery products were widely regarded as nutritious. Women and older individuals were more knowledgeable regarding alternative flours. Trust in functional products increased with age, marital status, household minor and adult size, and income. (4) Conclusions: Several demographic characteristics may affect the purchasing decisions and attitude towards flour, bakery, and functional food products.

1. Introduction

Nowadays, bakery products are an essential part of many people’s daily diets, providing crucial nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals. They are also rich in dietary fiber, which promotes bowel movement and therefore digestion. Due to their nutritional value, bakery products contribute to a balanced diet and provide essential energy. Additionally, their variety in flavors, textures, and shapes makes them popular, representing an easy and quick snack option for consumers worldwide [1]. According to Statista, the global revenue in the bread and bakery products market corresponded to EUR 1273 billion in 2024. The market is expected to experience a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.93% between 2024 and 2029. The average volume per person and per-person revenue for 2024 are estimated to be 88.8 kg and EUR 164.30, respectively. The volume is expected to grow to 809.10 billion kg by 2029, whereas the market is estimated to demonstrate a volume growth of 4.2% in 2025. In Greece, revenue in the bread and bakery products market amounted to EUR 2.87 billion in 2024, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.58% estimated between 2024 and 2029. The average volume per person and per-person revenue for 2024 were 82.8 kg and EUR 278.80, respectively, and the market volume is expected to grow to 976.90 million kg by 2029, with an expected volume growth of 3.0% in 2025 [2].

These days, living standards have improved globally, leading to lifestyle and dietary changes, with a growing preference for functional food products. The global market for functional foods, valued at USD 40 billion with 300,000 products, includes fortified, natural, and probiotic foods. These foods help reduce the risk of chronic disease onset, compensate for nutrient deficiencies, and promote overall health through ingredients like dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and essential fatty acids. Therefore, functional foods represent a group of products used to improve and maintain human health [3]. Functional foods are represented by a great number of food groups, among which grain-based products, including bakery products, dominate the market. To promote healthy eating, consumers should be educated about the benefits of functional bakery products. In the European Union, there is no single, comprehensive legislation that formally classifies “functional foods” as a distinct category. According to the EU concerted action project FUFOSE (Functional Food Science in Europe), coordinated by ILSI (International Life Sciences Institute):“a food can be regarded as functional if it has been satisfactorily demonstrated to affect beneficially one or more target functions in the body beyond adequate nutritional effects in a way that is relevant to either an improved state of health and well-being and/or a reduction in risk of disease”. Functional foods should also offer proven health benefits, maintain their food-like form, and be easy to incorporate into a regular diet: “a functional food must remain food and it must demonstrate its effects in amounts that can normally be expected to be consumed in the diet: it is not a pill or a capsule, but part of the normal food pattern” [4]. Functional bakery products are not officially recognized as a distinct category under EU legislation; however, several EU regulations address different aspects of these products such as food safety and hygiene, food additives, nutritional information, and health claims, including distinctions between natural and artificial flavors. Specific rules apply to novel foods and specific ingredients such as flours, cream, and yeast, in order to ensure safety and hygiene maintenance [5,6,7,8]. A growing trend is the use of natural food fortifiers to enhance the nutritional value of bakery products [9].

The demand for innovative bakery products emphasizes the exploitation of novel raw materials such as alternative unrefined flours, high fiber content, and the absence of gluten [10]. Consumers are becoming more and more conscious of the nutritional impacts of their daily diets. Producers are responding by incorporating novel ingredients to enhance product quality, functionality, and health benefits. In order to enhance the nutritional quality of bakery products and render them as “functional”, wheat flour should be partially or even fully replaced. Refined wheat flour, which is the main ingredient in their formulation, possesses a relatively low content of dietary fiber, proteins, minerals, and bioactive compounds, thereby providing insufficient nutritional value. Furthermore, during baking, they are subjected to very high temperatures, leading to the loss of the majority of their nutritional components, such as phenolic compounds, which are greatly affected by processing. For this reason, potential functional ingredients are isolated or purified in order to be incorporated into bakery product formulations and minimize this loss. These ingredients include probiotics and prebiotics, antioxidants and polyphenols, oils and lipids, minerals, salts, and vitamins. Most of these can be acquired by the food industry from by-products, thereby providing an alternative to disposal and offering both environmental and economic benefits [11,12,13,14]. These bioactive components have been linked to a number of health benefits such as antimicrobial, antithrombotic, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, antihypertensive, immunomodulatory, antioxidative, anticancer, and gastroprotective properties [15,16,17,18]. Functional bakery products aim not only to provide essential nutrients but also to prevent nutrition-related diseases and promote physical and mental well-being [19,20,21]. Despite this, poor dietary habits do persist, contributing to the global onset and progression of obesity and related chronic illnesses [22]. While bakery companies are innovating by integrating nutritious ingredients into their products, consumer awareness of the health benefits of these functional ingredients remains limited [23]. This highlights the need for communication campaigns that will provide the public with information regarding the range of functional products available, the health benefits provided in relation to their innovation, and price ranges, as consumers are generally not willing to pay higher prices for functional food products [21,24].

Generally, consumers are reluctant towards novel food technologies, including those used in the formulation of functional food products. The innovative technologies applied to their development, along with their distinctive nutritional characteristics, constitute challenges for consumers, as they lack familiarity and possess insufficient or limited nutritional knowledge about the health benefits [23,25]. The role of consumer knowledge in food choice behavior is well established [26]. Topolska et al. identified knowledge as a critical factor influencing consumer preferences and acceptance of functional foods [27]. Previous studies have demonstrated that acceptance is strongly dependent on consumers’ ability to understand the health outcomes associated with functional products consumption [28,29,30]. Individuals with higher levels of knowledge about functional food products are more capable of interpreting those benefits and are also more motivated to purchase them, as they can effectively link health-related information on product labels with their existing knowledge [31,32,33].

In the case of bakery products, ongoing research aims to replace wheat flour with novel, sustainable alternative flours in order to alleviate the existing disease burden and promote healthier dietary patterns within the population [34]. Those plant-based alternatives include flours from fruit and vegetables, cereals, legumes, nuts, oilseeds, and those derived from brewery, winery, and distillery. Bakery products that have been enriched include cakes, biscuits, bread, crackers, cookies, and muffins [14,35,36,37].

Consumer perceptions and behavior towards staple foods such as bakery products play a crucial role in the bakery industry [38]. The crucial steps for successful food product innovation and development include the categorization of consumers according to their preferences and perceptions. Demographic characteristics of consumers are often used for their categorization based on preferences related to these products [39,40]. Consumers’ acceptance and subsequent adoption and integration of functional products into their daily diet represent a gradual and complicated process, where many factors are involved. For example, most consumers tend to approve of fortified bakery products due to their familiar natural contents and the natural enrichment techniques employed for their formulation. Consumers’ purchasing preferences and decisions regarding innovative fortified bakery products are mainly affected by demographic characteristics [41,42,43].

A limited number of studies have evaluated purchasing and consumption frequencies of bakery products, as well as the factors that determine these choices. In parallel, there are many studies assessing acceptance and trust toward functional foods. However, there are no studies focusing on consumer perception of bakery products, evaluation of consumers’ knowledge of alternative flours used in their formulation, and their preference if incorporated into bakery products. Therefore, the aim of the study was initially to evaluate the general purchasing habits and preferences, as well as consumption behavior of Greek consumers in terms of flour and bakery products. In addition, demographic characteristics were also evaluated to identify possible links to consumers’ purchasing patterns, attitudes towards functional and innovative foods, and perception of bakery products’ nutritional value.

2. Materials and Methods

Questionnaire design

The questionnaire was composed during the period of December 2023–February 2024 using the relevant literature. Corresponding studies were used for its compilation. The questionnaire questions are divided into three parts. The parts are as follows:

PART A—Data of the respondents: This part included questions related to the demographic data of the respondents. More specifically, the questions concerned the: (i) age, (ii) gender, (iii) level of education, (iv) profession, (v) income, (vi) marital status, (vii) household minors and adult members, and (viii) place of residence. Gender, age, education, place of residence, marital status, profession, and income are strongly associated with the majority of outcome variables relevant to food-related behaviors [44], therefore were chosen to evaluate whether or not they were linked to certain flour and bakery product purchasing and consumption attitudes. Furthermore, demographic factors offer valuable insight into consumer behavior when selecting products that differ from the consumer’s habitual preference, such as functional food products. Major influencing factors include gender, age, education, income, number of household members, and the presence of children in the household. These factors could reflect consumers’ willingness to try unconventional products, beyond their preferences and needs [45], such as alternative flours and functional bakery products mentioned in the current study.

PART B—Data on Flour purchase: The aim of this part was to collect data on flour purchase according to consumer choices. More specifically, the questions concerned: (i) the weekly amount of flour purchased, (ii) the use of flour, (iii) the type of flour they usually purchased, and (iv) the most important factor influencing their purchasing choice.

PART C—Data on Bakery Products: The objective was to collect data on purchase and preference of bakery products according to consumer choices. More specifically, the questions concerned: (i) the frequency of bakery products consumption, (ii) the type of bakery product they usually consumed, (iii) the frequency of bakery product purchase, (iv) their opinion about bakery products, (v) their attitude towards new and innovative food products, (vi) their knowledge about the existence of bakery products made from flours alternative to wheat, (vii) their willingness to try bakery products made from flours alternative to wheat, and (viii) their preference regarding the alternative flour they would choose for incorporation into bakery products.

Sample Collection and Processing

The study was carried out on a random sample of the population, including residents from the island of Limnos as well as areas of Central and Northern Greece, with voluntary participation. The total questionnaires collected were 639, with the age range from 18 to 75 years. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of the Aegean (protocol code 7505 and date of approval 20 October 2019). All participants were informed in detail about the purpose of the study and signed a consent form.

Analysis of the first hypothesis (H1)

Hypothesis 0 (H0) stated that the demographic characteristics of the population surveyed, such as age, sex, education, occupation, income, marital status, and place of residence, did not affect consumers’ selection patterns and preferences for flour. Hypothesis 1 (H1) stated that the demographic characteristics such as age, gender, education, occupation, income, marital status, and place of residence, influenced consumers’ selection patterns and preferences for flour.

Analysis of the second hypothesis (H2)

Hypothesis 0 (H0) stated that the demographic characteristics of the population surveyed such as age, gender, education, profession, income, marital status, and place of residence, did not affect consumers’ preferences and attitude towards bakery products. Hypothesis 2 (H2) stated that the demographic characteristics such as age, gender, education, profession, income, marital status, and place of residence, affected consumers’ preferences and attitude towards bakery products.

Analysis of the third hypothesis (H3)

Hypothesis 0 (H0) stated that the demographic characteristics of the population surveyed such as age, gender, education, profession, income, marital status, place of residence, and number of adult and minor members in the household, did not influence consumers’ behavior towards functional and innovative food products. Hypothesis 3 (H3) stated that the demographic characteristics such as age, gender, education, profession, income, marital status, place of residence, and number of adult and minor members in the household, influenced consumers’ behavior towards functional and innovative food products.

Statistical analysis

The program used to process and analyze the data was IBM SPSS Statistics 21 (Statistical Package for Social Sciences). The following statistical tools were used for analyzing and interpreting the data. Percentage analysis was used to interpret consumers’ demographic variables [46] such as age, gender, education level, profession, income, number of household members, marital status, and place of residence. Simple percentage analysis was also employed to interpret consumers’ preferences and awareness towards flour, bakery products, and functional foods. Data were assessed for normal distribution through Kolmogorov–Smirnov test [47]. The non-parametric tests Chi-Square test of independence Kruskal–Wallis H, and Mann–Whitney U tests were employed to assess statistically significant differences between demographic variables and consumer responses [48,49]. The Chi-Square test was selected to evaluate the relationship between categorical variables due to its robustness regardless of data distribution, as it provides comprehensive information on the groups’ performance. Assumptions to be met include: (a) variables need to be categorical either nominal or ordinal, (b) observations must be independent, (c) the expected frequency in each cell should be ≥5 to ensure reliable results, and (d) the sample should be randomly selected from the population. Limitations include: (a) sample size sensitivity, as small sample sizes can provide unreliable results, (b) the test provides information about the association between variables, with no indication of the causal relationships or strength of relationship, and (c) large sample effect, as minor differences in quite large sample sizes may appear significant [49]. Kruskal–Wallis H test was employed to compare three or more independent groups to determine if there are statistically significant differences between them, assuming that data are ordinal or continuous with similar distributions and the sample is randomly selected from the population. However, this test is less sensitive than the parametric one-way ANOVA test, indicating a significant result even if one group differs; it does not provide information on which groups differ. Test analysis relies on ranks rather than means, whereas differences detected could result from variations in distribution shape rather than actual differences in medians [48]. The Mann–Whitney U test was used to compare differences between two independent groups, meeting the assumptions and limitations as in the Kruskal–Wallis H test [48]. Finally, the type and degree of correlation between variables were measured through the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient [50]. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient requires ordinal data with independent observations, where the relationship between the two variables tested each time must be monotonic. This analysis cannot detect non-monotonic relationships, appears less sensitive than the Pearson correlation coefficient, and its accuracy can be compromised by ties. Finally, like all other correlation tests, it indicates the association between variables rather than cause–effect relationships [50].

3. Results

3.1. Participants’ Demographic Characteristics

The total number of participants in the study was 639 and their demographic characteristics are presented in

Table 1. Participants’ demographic characteristics.

Characteristics	Categories	Percentage
Gender	Male	44%
	Female	56%
Age	18–30 years	15.2%
	30–45 years	37.1%
	45–65 years	33.6%
	over 65 years	14.1%
Education level	Primary school	3.3%
	High school	46.6%
	Institute of vocational training	8.1%
	University	28.2%
	Post-graduate studies/PhD	6.9%
Profession	Students	9.2%
	Private employees	20.2%
	Civil servants	10.3%
	Freelancers	17.8%
	Farmers/artisans	10%
	Police/military officers	7.5%
	Household activities	7.7%
	Pensioners	15.2%
	Other	1.1%
	Unemployed	0.9%
Income	EUR 450–1000	29.6%
	EUR 1000–1500	44.1%
	EUR 1500–2000	17.7%
	Over EUR 2000	8.6%
Marital status	Single	24.1%
	Married	57.9%
	Divorced	11.3%
	Widowed	6.7%
Number of adult members	1	9.7%
	2	26.4%
	3	20.3%
	4	34.4%
	5	9.1%
Number of minor members	0	50.9%
	1	21.9%
	2	23%
	3	4.2%
Place of residence	Village	20.5%
	Small provincial town	8.1%
	Provincial city	48.5%
	Prefecture capital	22.8%

.

3.2. Participants’ Data on Flour Purchase

The highest number of participants purchased a weekly amount of flour ranging between 2 and 4 kg (39.6%). Regarding the intended use of the flour purchased, the largest percentages concerned making pies (23%), bread (18.8%), frying (18%), and baking cakes (15.5%). With respect to the type of flour participants usually purchased, most chose all-purpose flour (39%), whereas the most important factor in flour purchase was quality/nutritional value (36%), followed by price (22.2%) (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4).

3.3. Participants’ Data on Preferences and Attitudes Towards Bakery Products’, Purchase Frequencies, and Consumption

The majority of participants consumed bakery products (98.4%). Most participants consumed bakery products either every day (47.6%) or 3–5 times a week (30.5%). Regarding the type of bakery product they usually consumed, the highest percentages concerned bread (25.7%), biscuits/cookies (23.9%), and puff pastry (20.8%). The largest percentages of participants reported buying bakery products every day (37.6%) or every two days (32.9%). With respect to the statement that bakery products have nutritional value, nearly half of the participants agreed with this statement (49.3%). Regarding the statement that bakery products are good for health, the largest number of participants either agreed with this (44.4%) or took a neutral stance (31%). Finally, according to the results of the participants’ opinion about bakery products, the largest number believed they represent an easy breakfast choice (46.6%) (

Table 2. Preferences and attitudes towards bakery products’, purchase frequencies, and consumption.

	Categories	Percentage
Do you consume bakery products?	Yes	98.4%
	No	1.6%
How often do you consume bakery products?	Every day	47.6%
	Every 3–5 days	30.5%
	Once a week	18.3%
	Rarely	2.7%
	Once a month	0.9%
What type of bakery products do you usually consume?	Bread	25.7%
	Biscuits/Cookies	23.9%
	Puff pastry	20.8%
	Crackers	14.2%
	Breadsticks	10.8%
	Cakes	4.5%
How often do you purchase bakery products?	Every day	37.6%
	Every 2 weeks	32.9%
	Once a week	24.4%
	Rarely	2.5%
	Once every 2 weeks	1.4%
Bakery products have nutritional value.	Strongly agree	6.3%
	Agree	49.3%
	Neither agree nor disagree	26.3%
	Disagree	16.6%
	Strongly disagree	1.6%
Bakery products are good for our health.	Strongly agree	3.1%
	Agree	44.4%
	Neither agree nor disagree	31%
	Disagree	19.4%
	Strongly disagree	2%
Which of the following statements matches your opinion on bakery products?	They represent an easy breakfast choice. They are fatty.	46.6% 26.9%
	They are not a healthy breakfast choice.	10.3%
	I do not have an opinion.	8.3%

).

3.4. Participants’ Attitude Towards Innovative Functional Food Products

Regarding the statement whether they always want to try new and innovative food products, the largest percentage of participants agreed with this statement (67.1%). Evaluation of participants’ trust towards innovative food products showed that most participants (318 people) chose grade 6, showing a high level of trust (

Table 3. Participants’ attitude towards innovative functional food products.

	Categories	Percentage
I always want to try new and innovative food products.	Strongly agree	15.2%
	Agree	67.1%
	Neither agree nor disagree	11.1%
	Disagree	5.5%
	Strongly disagree	1.1%
Degree of trust towards innovative functional food products.	1	0.8%
	2	2.8%
	3	5.3%
	4	12.1%
	5	15.5%
	6	49.8%
	7	13.8%
Do you know the existence of flours alternative to wheat?	Yes	76.4%
	No	25.4%
Would you try bakery products based on flours alternative to wheat?	Definitely yes	69.5%
	Probably yes	18.6%
	Maybe yes maybe no	6.9%
	Probably no	4.7%
What type of alternative flour would you choose for incorporation in bakery products?	Barley flour enriched with fiber (e.g., β-glucan)	48%
	Olive seed flour	16.9%
	Chickpea flour	15.2%
	Grape seed flour	12.1%
	Lupine flour	7.8%

).

The largest number of participants had knowledge about the existence of alternative flours (74.6%). Most participants would definitely try bakery products based on flour alternatives to wheat (69.5%). Finally, with respect to the type of flour they would choose to incorporate into bakery products, barley flour fortified with fibers (e.g., β-glucan) was mainly chosen (48%). (Table 3).

3.5. Results of the First Hypothesis (H1)

The pooled results are summarized in

Table 4. Demographic characteristics influencing questions about flour purchase.

	Demographic Characteristics	Pearson Correlation Coefficient
Intended use of flour	Gender	rs = 0.128 (p = 0.001)
	Level of education	rs = 0.167 (p = 0.000)
	Age	rs = − 0.157 (p = 0.000)
Type of flour usually purchased	Age	rs = 0.193 (p = 0.000)
	Income	rs = 0.127 (p = 0.001)
	Level of education	rs = −0.132 (p = 0.001)
	Place of residence	rs = −0.132 (p = 0.001)
	Marital status	rs = 0.200 (p = 0.000)
Most important factor in flour purchase	Marital status	rs = −0.173 (p = 0.000)
	Place of residence	rs = −0.175 (p = 0.000)
Amount of flour purchased/week	Age	rs = 0.270 (p = 0.000)
	Level of education	rs = −0.373 (p = 0.000)
	Profession	rs = −0.116 (p = 0.000)
	Marital status	rs = −0.265 (p = 0.000)
	Place of residence	rs = 0.155 (p = 0.000)

.

3.5.1. How Demographic Characteristics Influenced the Use of Flour Purchased by Consumers

The hypothesis of independence of gender and education in relation to flour use was rejected (p = 0.000). The Spearman correlation coefficient indicated the existence of a low positive correlation (rs = 0.128) between gender and flour use, which was statistically significant (p = 0.001). The largest percentages of men used the flour they bought mainly for pizza and bread making, while women used it mainly for cakes and desserts. A statistically significant (p = 0.000) low positive correlation (rs = 0.167) was detected between education and flour use, as primary school graduates used it mainly for making bread, while gymnasium, high school, and vocational training institute graduates used it mainly for bread and pies. Finally, university graduates used flour mainly for frying and making pies, while those with Master’s/PhD studies used it mainly for cakes. Age also seemed to affect the use of flour purchased by consumers, as the Kruskal–Wallis H test indicated a statistically significant difference in the use of flour by age range (χ² = 27.807, p = 0.000). The Spearman correlation coefficient indicated a statistically significant (p = 0.000) low negative correlation (rs = −0.157). Younger participants (18–30 years) used it mainly for frying, while older participants (30–45 years) mainly for cakes and pies. The older age groups (45–65 and over 65 years old) used it mainly for pies and bread, respectively (Table 4).

3.5.2. How Demographic Characteristics Affected the Type of Flour Consumers Buy

The Kruskal–Wallis H test indicated a statistically significant difference in the type of flour purchased by age range (χ² = 31.529, p = 0.000) and income (χ² = 13.121 p = 0.004). At the same time, through the Spearman correlation coefficient, statistically significant low positive correlations emerged (rs = 0.193, p = 0.000 and rs = 0.127, p = 0.001, respectively). The majority of younger people (18–30 years old) and about half of the 30–45-year-old individuals bought all-purpose flour. The middle-aged participants mainly bought all-purpose flour but also preferred durum wheat flour in higher percentages than all other age groups, while the elderly preferred gluten-free and zea flours. With respect to income, all groups mainly bought all-purpose flour, although individuals with higher income (EUR 1000–over EUR 2000 ) demonstrated a higher preference for farina and durum wheat flours. Hypotheses of independence between level of education, place of residence, marital status, and type of flour purchased were rejected (p < 0.05). Spearman correlation coefficients indicated the existence of low negative correlations (rs = −0.132) for level of education and place of residence, statistically significant (p = 0.001). Primary school, gymnasium, and high school graduates mainly bought all-purpose and durum wheat flours, whereas university graduates demonstrated higher preference rates for farina and gluten-free flours. Furthermore, village residents mainly bought all-purpose and wheat flours, whereas residents of rural towns and capitals demonstrated higher preference rates for organic, farina, and gluten-free flours. In respect to education level a statistically significant low positive correlation was detected (rs = 0.200, p = 0.000). Singles mainly preferred all-purpose flour, while smaller numbers chose farina and organic flour. Married people showed a broader distribution, with a preference for all-purpose flour but also notable use of organic, durum wheat, and gluten-free. Divorced and widowed people showed lower consumption overall, with most of their choices also focusing on all-purpose flour (Table 4).

3.5.3. How Demographic Characteristics Affected Consumers’ Purchase Factor of Flour

Hypotheses of independence between marital status and place of residence with respect to flour purchase factors were rejected (p < 0.05). In the cases of marital status and place of residence, the Spearman correlation coefficients indicated low negative correlations (rs = −0.173 and rs = −0.175, respectively), statistically significant (p = 0.000). Singles were mostly influenced by price, use, and habit in similar proportions. Divorced and widowed consumers, in higher percentages, chose quality/nutritional value and price, while married people mainly chose quality/nutritional value. At the same time, villagers, in their larger percentages, were equally affected by quality/nutritional value, use, and habit, while residents of small provincial towns were mainly affected by use and quality/nutritional value. Finally, both residents of provincial cities and those who lived in capitals were mainly affected by quality/nutritional value and price (Table 4).

3.5.4. How Demographic Characteristics Affect the Weekly Amount of Flour Consumers Buy

Between gender and the weekly amount of flour purchased by consumers, the Mann–Whitney U test was performed, where a statistically significant difference was obtained (p = 0.000). Through the number Z = −4.745, the effect of gender on the weekly quantity of flour purchased was calculated through the coefficient r = Z/√N = 4.745/√639 = 0.1877, indicating a small effect of gender on the weekly quantity of flour purchased. Women tended to buy smaller or medium amounts of flour per week, while men tended to buy larger amounts. The Kruskal–Wallis H test indicated a statistically significant difference in the weekly amount of flour purchased by type of occupation (χ² = 136.716 p = 0.000). The Spearman correlation coefficient indicated a low negative correlation (rs = −0.116), statistically significant (p = 0.000). Farmers/craftsmen bought the highest amount of flour weekly (over 4 kilos), while students bought the smallest (up to 1 kg). Individuals of other professions mainly preferred smaller (up to 1 kg) or medium (2–4 kg) amount of flour per week. Through the Chi-Square Test, the hypotheses of independence between age, place of residence, education, marital status, and the weekly quantity of flour purchased were rejected (p < 0.05). Statistically significant (p = 0.000) low positive correlations were calculated (rs = 0.270 and rs = 0.155, respectively). The 18–30-year-old group mostly bought smaller amounts (up to 1 kg) per week, while the older participants bought higher amounts (2–4 kg per week). Residents of small provincial towns tended to buy larger numbers per week, while those who lived in provincial towns mainly bought smaller amounts. In the cases of education and marital status variables, statistically significant negative correlations were observed. In the case of education, the correlation was strong (rs = −0.373), while in the case of marital status it was low (rs = −0.265). High school graduates tended to buy higher amounts per week, whereas university graduates and those with Master’s/PhD studies mainly bought small amounts. In terms of marital status, singles mainly bought the smallest amount (up to 1 kilo per week), while divorced and widowed participants bought medium amounts (2–4 kg). Married people mainly bought 2–4 kg, but many of them also preferred to buy the highest amount (over 4 kg) (Table 4).

3.6. Results of the Second Hypothesis (H2)

The pooled results are summarized in

Table 5. Demographic characteristics affecting questions about bakery products.

	Demographic Characteristics	Pearson Correlation Coefficient
How often do you consume bakery products?	Gender	rs = −0.268 (p = 0.000)
	Income	rs = 0.134 (p = 0.001)
What type of bakery products do you usually consume?	Gender	rs = −0.132 (p = 0.001)
	Income	rs = −0.154 (p = 0.000)
	Level of education	rs = 0.130 (p = 0.001)
	Age	rs = −0.236 (p = 0.000)
	Profession	rs = −0.133 (p = 0.001)
	Marital status	rs = −0.238 (p = 0.000)
How often do you purchase bakery products?	Gender	rs = −0.354 (p = 0.000)
	Level of education	rs = −0.103 (p = 0.009)
	Income	rs = 0.199 (p = 0.000)
	Number of minors in household	rs = 0.342 (p = 0.000)
	Number of adults in household	rs = 0.243 (p = 0.000)
Bakery products are good for our health.	Place of residence	rs = 0.128 (p = 0.001)

.

3.6.1. How Demographic Characteristics Affect the Frequency of Bakery Consumption

By using the Chi-Square Test, gender and income were found to influence the frequency of bakery products consumption (p < 0.05). Through the Spearman correlation coefficient, a low negative correlation between gender and the frequency of bakery products consumption was observed and was statistically significant (rs = −0.268, p = 0.000). Men were more likely to consume bakery products every day, while women demonstrated more variation in consumption frequencies. Concerning income, the Spearman correlation coefficient indicated a statistically significant low positive correlation (rs = 0.134, p = 0.001). People with higher incomes (EUR 1500–2000 and over EUR 2000 ) consumed bakery products mainly every day (Table 5).

3.6.2. How Demographic Characteristics Influence the Type of Bakery Usually Consumed

Individuals’ gender, age, education level, profession, income, and marital status influenced the type of bakery product usually consumed (p < 0.05). Using the Spearman correlation coefficient, low statistically significant negative correlations were detected between gender, age, occupation, income, and marital status in relation to the type of bakery product usually consumed, while at the same time, a low positive correlation was calculated regarding the level of education. More specifically, with respect to gender (rs = −0.132, p = 0.001), men consumed a higher proportion of puff pastry, while women consumed cookies/biscuits. In respect to age (rs = −0.236, p = 0.000), different age groups showed clear preferences for different types of bakery products. Younger participants (18–30 years) consumed mainly bread and pastries, while the 30–45 age group consumed bread and cookies/biscuits. The 45–65-year-olds, in their largest percentages, consumed cookies/biscuits and puff pastry, while the older participants (65 years and over) mainly consumed crackers (Table 5).

Regarding profession (rs = −0.133, p = 0.001), farmers/craftsmen and those employed in police/military consumed higher percentages of puff pastry and cookies/biscuits. Civil servants and private employees consumed mainly bread and cookies/biscuits, while freelancers mostly consumed bread and crackers. Pupils/students mostly consumed bread and puff pastry, while those engaged in household activities mainly consumed cookies/biscuits. Finally, pensioners in greater percentages consumed crackers and bread, while the unemployed mostly consumed bread. In respect to income (rs = −0.154, p = 0.000), those earning EUR 450–1000 consumed mainly bread and, to a relatively smaller proportion, cookies/biscuits and puff pastry, while those with EUR 1000–1500 mainly consumed cookies/biscuits and pastries. People with salaries ranging from EUR 1500 to 2000, in their highest percentages, chose puff pastry, cookies/biscuits, and bread, while people with more than EUR 2000 mainly chose crackers, cookies/biscuits, and bread. For marital status, the highest negative correlation was observed (rs = −0.238, p = 0.000), where singles mainly chose bread and pastries, while married individuals mainly chose bread and cookies/biscuits. Divorced people mostly consumed cookies/biscuits and puff pastry, while widowers mostly consumed crackers. Finally, regarding the level of education (rs = 0.130, p = 0.001), the largest percentages of elementary school graduates chose bread, while middle school graduates chose bread and cookies/biscuits. High school graduates mainly consumed cookies/biscuits and puff pastry, while vocational training institute graduates mainly consumed bread and puff pastry. University graduates mainly consumed bread, cookies/biscuits, and puff pastry, while those with Master’s/PhD studies mostly consumed bread (Table 5).

3.6.3. How Demographic Characteristics Affect Bakery Products Purchase Frequency

The Chi-Square Test revealed that gender, education level, and income affected the frequency of bakery products purchases (p < 0.05). Furthermore, negative correlations were observed between gender, age, education level, and profession in relation to the frequency of bakery products purchases, while at the same time, a positive correlation was found with income, marital status, and the number of minors and adult household members. More specifically, regarding gender, a high negative correlation (rs = −0.345) was observed and was statistically significant (p = 0.000), where the majority of men bought bakery products every day, while women bought them either every two days or once a week. In relation to the level of education (rs = −0.103, p = 0.009), more than half of elementary school graduates and almost half of middle school graduates bought bakery products every day, while the largest percentages of high school, vocational training institute, and university graduates bought bakery products either every day or every two days. Finally, the Master’s/PhD graduates chose to purchase those products either every two days or once a week. Regarding the number of minor and adult household members and income in relation to the frequency of bakery product purchases, statistically significant positive correlations were observed, high in the case of the number of minors and low in the number of adults and income (rs = 0.342, rs =0.243, and rs = 0.199, respectively, p = 0.000). The frequency of bakery products purchases increased as the number of minors, adults, and income increased (Table 5).

3.6.4. How Demographic Characteristics Influence Consumers’ Opinion on Whether Bakery Products Have Nutritional Value

The majority of demographic characteristics did not seem to influence the opinion of consumers regarding whether bakery products have nutritional value as the majority agreed with that statement (Table 5).

3.6.5. How Demographic Characteristics Influence Consumers’ Opinions on Whether Bakery Products Are Good for Our Health

Place of residence influenced consumers’ opinion on whether bakery products are good for our health (p < 0.05). A statistically significant low positive correlation was observed (rs = 0.128, p = 0.001), as a larger number of respondents who lived either in provincial cities or in capitals agreed to a greater extent that bakery products are good for our health (Table 5).

3.6.6. How Demographic Characteristics Influence Consumers’ Opinions on Bakery Products

The majority of demographic characteristics did not seem to influence the opinion of consumers regarding bakery products, as the majority of participants agreed that bakery products represent an easy breakfast choice (Table 5).

3.7. Results of the Third Hypothesis (H3)

The pooled results are summarized in

Table 6. Demographic characteristics affecting questions about innovative and functional food products.

	Demographic Characteristics	Pearson Correlation Coefficient
I always want to try new and innovative food products.	Age	rs = 0.098 (p = 0.013)
	Income	rs = 0.116 (p = 0.003)
	Marital status	rs = 0.102 (p = 0.010)
	Place of residence	rs = 0.252 (p = 0.000)
	Number of minors in household	rs = 0.094 (p = 0.018)
	Number of adults in household	rs = 0.234 (p = 0.000)
Degree of trust towards innovative functional food products.	Gender	rs = −0.134 (p = 0.000)
	Age	rs = 0.123 (p = 0.002)
	Income	rs = 0.228 (p = 0.000)
	Marital status	rs = 0.131 (p = 0.001)
	Place of residence	rs = 0.319 (p = 0.000)
	Number of minors in household	rs = 0.146 (p = 0.000)
	Number of adults in household	rs = 0.369 (p = 0.000)
Are you familiar with the existence of bakery products from alternative flours?	Gender	rs = −0.165 (p = 0.000)
	Age	rs = 0.177 (p = 0.000)
	Level of education	rs = −0.204 (p = 0.000)
	Marital status	rs = −0.106 (p = 0.008)
	Number of adults in household	rs = 0.100 (p = 0.012)
Would you try bakery products made from flours alternatives to wheat?	Income	rs = 0.211 (p = 0.000)
	Level of education	rs = −0.086 (p = 0.029)
	Place of residence	rs = 0.185 (p = 0.000)
	Number of minors in household	rs = 0.121 (p = 0.002)
	Number of adults in household	rs = 0.417 (p = 0.000)

.

3.7.1. How Demographic Characteristics Influence Consumers’ Opinion of Whether They Always Want to Try New Innovative Food Products

Using the Chi-Square Test, it was found that age, income, marital status, place of residence, and the number of minor and adult household members significantly influenced consumers’ willingness to try new and innovative food products (p < 0.05). Low but statistically significant positive correlations were observed for age (rs = 0.098, p = 0.013), marital status (rs = 0.102, p = 0.010), income (rs = 0.116, p = 0.003), number of minors (rs = 0.094, p = 0.018) and adults (rs = 0.234, p = 0.000) in the household, and place of residence (rs = 0.252, p = 0.000) (Table 6). These results indicate that as consumers’ age, household size, and income increased, a greater proportion agreed with the statement. For marital status, all categories largely agreed with the opinion. Regarding place of residence, residents of provincial cities and prefecture capitals showed higher agreement compared to village residents.

3.7.2. How Demographic Characteristics Influence Consumer Trust in Innovative Food Products

The Chi-Square Test indicated that gender, age, income, marital status, place of residence, and the number of minors and adults in the household significantly influenced consumers’ trust in innovative food products (p < 0.05). For gender, a low but statistically significant negative correlation was observed (rs = −0.134, p = 0.001). In both men and women, the number of individuals increased with increasing trust degree from 1 to 6, while only a very small proportion of each gender reported the maximum level of trust. In respect to age, a low positive correlation was found (rs = 0.123, p = 0.002), indicating that trust increased with age, while for marital status, a low positive correlation was observed (rs = 0.131, p = 0.001). Over 50% of married individuals reported the highest trust level (6), while this level was also mostly chosen by singles, widows/widowers, and divorced respondents. In relation to income, a low positive correlation was observed (rs = 0.228, p = 0.000), with lower-trust individuals possessing lower incomes. For the number of minors and adults in the household, low positive correlations were demonstrated (rs = 0.146, p = 0.000 and rs = 0.369, p = 0.000, respectively), indicating that trust increased with household size. Finally, regarding place of residence, a strong positive correlation was found (rs = 0.319, p = 0.000). Individuals with lower trust levels were more often residents of villages and small provincial towns, whereas residents of provincial towns and prefecture capitals more frequently reported the highest levels of trust (Table 6).

3.7.3. How Demographic Characteristics Affect Consumers’ Knowledge of the Existence of Bakery Products from Alternative Flours

The Chi-Square Test rejected the hypothesis of independence between gender, age, education level, marital status, and consumers’ knowledge of the existence of bakery products made from alternative flours (p < 0.05). For gender, a low negative correlation was observed (rs = −0.165, p = 0.000), indicating that while most men and women were aware of these products, women had slightly higher knowledge. Regarding education level, a low negative correlation was also noted (rs = −0.204, p = 0.000), with consumers of higher education levels showing greater awareness of bakery products made from alternative flours. In relation to marital status, a low positive correlation was observed (rs = 0.106, p = 0.008), with the largest number of individuals of all marital statuses aware of those products. For age, a low positive correlation was observed (rs = 0.177, p = 0.000), indicating that older individuals had higher knowledge of such products. Finally, for the number of adults in the household, a low positive correlation was observed (rs = 0.100, p = 0.012), indicating that knowledge increased with household size (Table 6).

3.7.4. How Demographic Characteristics Influence Consumers’ Opinion on Whether They Would Try Bakery Products Made from Flours Alternatives to Wheat

The Chi-Square Test rejected the hypothesis of independence between income, education level, place of residence, and consumers’ willingness to try bakery products made from alternative flours (p < 0.05). In relation to income, a low positive correlation was observed (rs = 0.211, p = 0.000), indicating that consumers with higher incomes were more likely to try such products. For place of residence, a low positive correlation was also demonstrated (rs = 0.185, p = 0.000), with residents of larger cities showing greater willingness. Regarding household size, positive correlations were observed for both the number of minors (rs = 0.121, p = 0.002) and adults (rs = 0.411, p = 0.000), showing that willingness increased with household size. Finally, for education level, a low negative correlation was observed (rs = −0.086, p = 0.029), indicating that individuals with lower education levels were more likely to try these products (Table 6).

4. Discussion

Bakery products are considered a staple food worldwide due to their taste and versatility. Traditionally, ingredients such as refined wheat flour, sugar, and fats are involved in their formulation. However, their regular consumption has been linked to the onset of pathological conditions such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases as a result of their high calorie levels and low nutritional value. Furthermore, the increasing prevalence of gluten-related disorders has forced consumers and researchers to employ healthier ingredients such as alternative flours in order to boost the nutritional value of bakery products [51,52]. Wheat flour could be enriched with cereal, legume, and pseudocereal flours to improve the nutritional profile of bakery products by increasing dietary fiber, protein, minerals, and vitamins, while also incorporating novel bioactive compounds. The antioxidant capacity of those molecules is well established, therefore their presence could contribute to protection against cell damage and reduce the risk of chronic disease risks [53].

Purchasing decisions are influenced by multiple factors, including cultural, social, psychological, and personal ones [54]. Among these, psychological factors play a crucial role in influencing consumers’ decisions to repurchase a bakery product. Motivation can also drive consumers towards healthier choices to be incorporated into a balanced diet, offering nutritional benefits. Another important factor is perception, as consumers are greatly influenced by display, packaging, and promotions. Personality can also influence product selection, as individuals focus on different perspectives such as color, taste, aroma, type of flour used, or production methods. Finally, emotions shape the consumer experience and play a key role in product repurchase [55]. Researchers have extensively explored bakery product consumption and its influencing factors. Their studies offer valuable insight into the complex patterns of consumer behavior in the bakery product market [56]. Furthermore, consumers’ demographic characteristics have been widely studied in the context of functional food products consumption in order to determine which of them appears to be significant. These characteristics elicit and affect consumers’ attitude and responses towards the perception and acceptability of functional food products [33]. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to analyze consumer behavior in the flour and bakery product market, assess their awareness and trust towards functional and innovative food products, and evaluate the dynamics of demographic characteristics in shaping their decisions and attitudes.

The primary use of flour purchased was influenced by gender, education level, and age. Men mainly used flour for frying, whereas women used it mostly for making pies. The use also varied across education levels: consumers with lower education predominantly used it for bread making, whereas those with higher education used it more for frying and baking cakes. Differences were also observed across ages, younger consumers mainly used flour for frying, while older consumers used it for bread making and cake baking. All-purpose flour was the most commonly purchased, regardless of age, income level, marital status, education level, and place of residence. Older individuals were more likely to select gluten-free and zea flours. In parallel, consumers with lower education levels purchased organic, gluten-free, and whole-wheat flours at a lower rate than those with higher education levels. Consumers with higher income and residents of larger cities were more likely to choose alternative flours. It therefore appears that most consumers choose the type of flour that possesses multiple uses and less often turn to flours for specific use or with greater nutritional value, as has been shown by a survey carried out in a supermarket in Chania, Crete [57].

Place of residence and marital status had an impact on factors affecting flour purchase, although quality/nutritional value was the primary factor. Singles were equally influenced by all factors. Divorced and widowed consumers were mainly influenced by quality/nutritional value and price, while married individuals were predominantly driven by quality/nutritional value. Village residents were equally influenced by quality/nutritional value, intended use, and habit. Residents of small provincial towns focused on use and quality/nutritional value, whereas residents of provincial cities and prefecture capitals were primarily influenced by quality/nutritional value and price. Quality/nutritional value was also the leading factor affecting flour purchase in a corresponding survey in Chania, Crete, whereas in a survey in Slovakia, most consumers were influenced by price [57,58]. Studies have highlighted the increasing interest of consumers in food security and their tendency to choose products with higher nutritional value such as whole-grain products [59,60]. Health and wellness are key factors influencing food purchases, as studies have demonstrated the progressive adaptation of consumers’ selections to support and maintain a healthier lifestyle [61,62].

Gender had little effect on the weekly amount of flour purchased, while profession, marital status, and education level showed a notable effect. The highest weekly flour purchases were made by farmers, artisans, pensioners, and individuals primarily engaged in household chores. Married individuals tended to buy the largest quantities weekly, whereas those with lower education levels purchased more flour weekly compared to those with higher education (university or post-graduate degrees). Additionally, weekly flour purchases increased with age, income, and among residents of larger cities. The correlation of age and income in relation to the amount of flour purchased has also been highlighted by a relevant study in Turkey and Kazakhstan. Older consumers (at a rate of 48%) bought larger quantities of flour compared to younger consumers, while individuals with lower incomes displayed higher frequencies of flour purchase and consumption compared to those in higher income ranges [63].

In relation to bakery product consumption frequency, men were more likely to consume bakery products every day, while consumers with the highest incomes also consumed them every day. Regarding the frequency of bakery product purchases, most men bought them daily, whereas most women purchased them every two days or once a week. Consumers with higher education levels and pensioners tend to buy bakery products less frequently. In a similar study in Poland, it was observed that women bought baked goods every day at a higher rate than men [64]. Finally, bakery product purchase frequency also increased with higher income and a greater number of both minor and adult household members. Demographic factors did not appear to affect consumers’ perception of the nutritional value of bakery products, since almost all considered them to be nutritious. The same trend was observed in a study regarding breakfast cereal [65]. Regarding consumers’ views on the health benefits of bakery products, residents of provincial cities and county capitals showed the highest agreement, while almost all considered bakery products as a convenient breakfast option. A study by Nagyova et al. evaluating the behavior of consumers towards bakery products such as pastry and bread highlighted these products as an essential part of everyday life, due to their traditional role in the culture [58].

Age, marital status, income, household size, and place of residence influenced consumers’ willingness to try new and innovative food products. Agreement with this statement increased with age and income. Individuals with more adults and children in the household showed higher agreement, while residents of provincial towns and prefecture capitals were more likely to agree than villagers. In a Malaysian study assessing Malaysian consumers’ awareness of functional foods, individuals who had a higher income and a younger age (below 25 years old) displayed a higher likelihood of awareness and reception towards functional foods than those with a lower income [66]. Additionally, in a 2006 Canadian survey, older consumers with lower education levels and lower incomes, mostly rural residents, appeared to be more open to functional foods [67]. A study has also highlighted the effect of children on the purchasing intentions of households regarding enriched innovative products. The presence of children under the age of 12 years was associated with a negative effect on purchasing intentions towards these products, whereas a positive effect was observed with older children [29].

Consumers’ degree of trust in innovative food products was influenced by gender, age, marital status, place of residence, household size, and income, with the strongest effects observed for place of residence and the number of adult members in the household. Lower degrees of trust were mostly demonstrated by younger individuals and those with lower incomes. In contrast, the highest degree of trust was reported particularly in households with more children and among urban residents. In Switzerland, older consumers also appeared to be more interested and showed higher degrees of trust in functional foods than younger consumers [68]. In parallel, in a Turkish study investigating consumers’ attitudes towards purchasing functional products, interest in functional foods was found to be higher in females, university graduates, and younger individuals (aged between 18 and 25 years) [69]. Married or widowed consumers also tended to have a more positive attitude towards purchasing enriched functional products [70], whereas in a single study, higher functional food consumption was linked to singles [71]. That was also the case for individuals with higher incomes, who are believed to possess greater health concerns and are therefore more open and receptive to functional foods [72,73]. Studies have also highlighted that the presence of minor members in the household had a negative effect on functional product trust and purchase intention, whereas the presence of older members displayed a positive effect [74,75]. The positive correlation, however, demonstrated in the study with respect to the number of minors in the household, could be explained by the fact that although their presence increases risk aversion, parents still seek nutritional value through their purchases of fortified products in order to maintain their children’s good health status [76].

Consumers’ knowledge of bakery products made from alternative flours was influenced by gender, education level, household size, and age. Although both men and women were aware of such products, women were more knowledgeable. Additionally, older consumers with higher education levels demonstrated greater awareness. In a similar manner, a study investigating consumers’ awareness, acceptance, and attitude towards functional foods in Turkey, showed that female respondents were more aware of functional foods than male respondents, and the same trend was demonstrated by older participants as well as those with higher educational levels [77]. Many studies have highlighted that female consumers represent the target population group for functional foods, as they appear be more health-conscious and interested in healthy food consumption compared to male consumers [77,78,79,80]. Furthermore, older consumers seem to have greater concerns about their health status and therefore develop an interest towards products that could provide them with bioactive ingredients able to decrease disease risks and help them maintain a healthy lifestyle [70,81].

Consumers’ willingness to try bakery products made from alternative flours was negatively correlated with education level, but positively correlated with income, household size, and place of residence. Individuals with lower education levels, higher incomes, and residents of larger cities were more likely to try these products. Consumers’ education level also did not seem to affect their attitude towards innovative functional foods, where both higher- and lower-educated consumers were aware of functional foods and had a positive attitude about them [66], although in another study, consumers with higher levels of education appeared to be slightly more receptive [78]. European studies have also highlighted that most functional food users are often of higher educational levels and economic status [82].

Finally, when it came to the type of flour consumers would select for bakery products, the majority of both men and women preferred barley flour fortified with dietary fibers, with a slightly higher proportion of women choosing it. This observation falls in line with the fact that consumers’ preferences mostly lean towards fiber-enriched cereals when dealing with functional food product formulations [74]. From a health perspective, more and more consumers take into consideration the composition and nutritional value of food products, opting for those with an enhanced nutritional profile [61].

5. Conclusions

Flour purchase decisions were influenced by certain demographics such as age, income, marital status, and educational level, whereas nutritional value was the top purchasing factor. Industries could therefore adopt marketing approaches that target specific groups, such as focusing on convenience for younger consumers and health benefits for older consumers, and provide both premium and affordable innovative products in order to match the varying income levels of consumers. As consumers already focus on health promotion, nutritional value should also be emphasized on labels. Policymakers could promote functional bakery products by tax relief on alternative flours, encourage bakeries to use them, and ensure that nutritional value on food labels is clearly displayed. Public health campaigns could adapt and customize their slogans based on demographics and educate the public how to properly read product labels. Bakery products were considered an easy breakfast, therefore they could be marketed and promoted as a healthy breakfast option through fortification and integration in schools and workplaces. As awareness of alternative flours was higher among women and older individuals, public knowledge and familiarity regarding alternative flours could be increased, specifically targeting younger consumers and men through targeted campaigns and advertising. Trust in functional products was correlated with age, income, marital status, and household size; therefore, industry and policymakers could introduce family packages of fortified bakery products with an emphasis on health benefits in order to ensure and build long-term trust. Consumers with lower education levels were highly receptive to functional foods, thus affordable prices and easy-to-read labels that inform consumers about health benefits could be adopted. Finally, as barley flour was the most preferred alternative, barley-enriched bakery products could be prioritized in formulations, while policymakers should promote and encourage domestic barley cultivation in order to ensure sustainability. Its inclusion in the everyday diet, due to its high number of health benefits, could also be encouraged by health campaigns focusing on public education.