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Article

The Role of Family Functioning in Over-Adaptation and Subjective Well-Being Among Japan’s Youth: The Moderating Effect of Gender Differences and Rumination

by
Mengting Zhang
1,* and
Hiroshi Utsunomiya
2
1
College of Human Science, Ritsumeikan University, Osaka 567-8570, Japan
2
College of Comprehensive Psychology, Ritsumeikan University, Osaka 567-8570, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Youth 2024, 4(4), 1787-1799; https://doi.org/10.3390/youth4040113
Submission received: 7 September 2024 / Revised: 3 December 2024 / Accepted: 9 December 2024 / Published: 17 December 2024
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Abstract

:
This study investigates the influence of family functioning on the subjective well-being of Japanese university students, focusing on the serial mediation roles of internal and external aspects of over-adaptation and the moderating effects of gender and rumination. Utilizing a cross-sectional survey of 219 university students, this study gathered data on a variety of factors including family functioning, over-adaptation, subjective well-being, and demographic variables. Key findings indicate that effective family functioning reduces the detrimental impacts of over-adaptation on internal aspects, thereby enhancing students’ subjective well-being. This study substantiates the application of family system theory in developmental psychology, providing empirical support for interventions aimed at improving students’ psychological health. Moreover, it highlights the role of rumination as a significant moderator in the relationship between over-adaptation and subjective well-being, suggesting avenues for further investigation into individual psychological coping mechanisms. This research has profound implications for the development of targeted family interventions and mental health strategies within clinical psychology.

1. Introduction

Although Japan is an economically powerful country, the level of subjective well-being reported among young people is lower than in other countries [1]. Furthermore, suicide was the leading cause of death among young people (aged 15–24) between 2009 and 2021 [2]. The issue of high unhappiness and suicide rates among Japan’s youth is complex and influenced by various cultural and societal factors. In particular, the cultural phenomenon of over-adaptation plays a key role.
Over-adaptation is defined as an individual’s suppression of their own emotions while excessively conforming to others’ expectations [3]. It is a dual-structured concept composed of two dimensions: the “internal aspect” and the “external aspect”. The “internal aspect” includes self-repressive personality traits characteristic of so-called “good children”, while the “external aspect”, oriented toward others, can be regarded as an adaptive strategy [3]. Over-adaptation is deeply rooted in Japan’s unique culture of harmony. Markus and Kitayama explored different cultural self-concepts to elucidate how culture influences psychological contexts [4]. They delineated two contrasting self-concepts: the “independent self-concept”, characteristic of Western cultures, and the “interdependent self-concept”, prevalent in Eastern cultures, particularly in Japan [4]. In Japanese culture, where harmony with the environment is strongly emphasized, self-assertion is often suppressed. In the process of raising children, most parents will focus on educating their children to care about other people’s opinions and avoid causing unnecessary annoyance to others [5]. While over-adaptation, aimed at caring for others and avoiding conflict, is generally regarded as a positive adaptation strategy, prolonged over-adaptation has been reported to pose significant physical and psychological risks [5], including stress responses, a decreased acceptance of bodily sensations, depression, and heart rate variability [5,6,7,8].
The family, as the fundamental unit of society, plays a pivotal role in both the physical and mental development of individuals. Family system theory posits that family functioning significantly influences the coping strategies and mental health of its members [9,10,11]. Within the collectivist cultural framework of Japan, the family’s influence on individual subjective well-being is especially pronounced. Despite its importance, existing research on the relationship between family functioning and the subjective well-being of university students is limited, with many underlying mechanisms still to be elucidated. This study seeks to explore the impact of family functioning on university students’ coping strategies and, subsequently, their subjective well-being.

1.1. Family Functioning

Family system theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding and evaluating the dynamics within families and their impact on individual behavior. This theory views the family as a complex, interactive system, emphasizing that the behaviors and relationships among family members are interdependent [12]. In family system theory, family functioning is considered crucial for maintaining system balance and promoting the healthy development of its members. Family functioning is measured across various dimensions, including problem solving, communication, roles, and emotional responsiveness [12]. This study, however, narrows its focus to two critical dimensions—family cohesion and family climate—examining their specific impacts on individual development. Firstly, family cohesion, defined as the emotional bond and mutual support among family members, is crucial for an individual’s emotional security and psychological stability [13]. Secondly, the sense of family climate, which encompasses the emotional and psychological climate within the family [9], is instrumental in providing a nurturing environment that promotes psychological well-being and behavioral adjustment [14]. While family functioning is universally acknowledged within psychology as pivotal in a child’s development, it also exerts a significant influence on college students. For example, when emerging adults perceive low family cohesion before entering college, they tend to experience lower academic adjustment, greater dissatisfaction with their social adjustment, and more general psychological and/or physical distress after entering college [10].

1.2. The Relationship Between Family Functioning and Subjective Well-Being

Subjective well-being lacks a unified measurement standard; it varies depending on researchers’ methods, potentially using different metrics. However, subjective well-being is widely recognized to encompass two main areas: cognitive and emotional components [15]. The cognitive aspect refers to an individual’s life satisfaction, while the emotional part includes both positive and negative emotions, such as happiness and sadness [15]. These elements reflect our intuitive sense of satisfaction with daily experiences and overall life. Family cohesion has been highlighted as an important factor in determining subjective well-being [16]. Family cohesion is reflected in emotional bonds and the level of interaction among family members [13]. Therefore, the higher the family cohesion, the higher the subjective well-being of college students [17] and the lower the levels of depression [18]. Additionally, a six-year longitudinal study from high school to college showed that students with higher family cohesion scores also had higher scores in self-control, mental health, and subjective well-being [16]. Moreover, the family atmosphere can also effectively predict college students’ subjective well-being, with fewer conflicts and violence in the family climate predicting higher life satisfaction [19].

1.3. The Mediating Role of Over-Adaptation Between Family Functioning and Subjective Well-Being

The concept of emerging adulthood is theoretically and empirically distinct from late adolescence and adulthood [20]. During this stage, college students gradually become independent from their families and enter society, facing various developmental tasks related to academics, careers, interpersonal relationships, self-exploration, and growth. This challenging and unstable period often leads to increased perceived stress, risky behaviors, higher suicide rates, and lower subjective well-being [10,20]. The protective role of the family and effective coping strategies are crucial for young adults in adapting to university life and the changes it brings. In Japan, research on family and over-adaptation has largely focused on parent–child relationships, such as how parental warmth and stable family dynamics (the relationship between father, mother, and child) can effectively mitigate the negative effects of over-adaptation [3,21,22], often overlooking the influence of other significant family members like siblings or grandparents. Few studies have examined over-adaptation in the context of the family system, considering the family as an organic whole and exploring the formation and harmful effects of over-adaptation in relation to the living environment.
On the other hand, individuals with a tendency toward over-adaptation show positive correlations with stress responses, stress vulnerability and obsessive–compulsive symptoms, anthropophobia tendencies, depression, and low subjective well-being [6,21,23,24], negatively impacting mental health. Despite the negative consequences of over-adaptation, its external aspects may have certain positive functions. For instance, behaviors oriented toward others, like caring for others, striving to meet expectations, and seeking approval, may not only enhance interpersonal relationships but also positively influence school adjustment and future subjective well-being [6,21,25]. Moreover, as the internal aspect of over-adaptation is the primary response and the external aspect as an adaptive strategy is secondary [3], this study focuses on the serial mediation effect of over-adaptation from the internal to the external dimension.
According to family system theory, the soundness of family functioning profoundly influences members’ coping strategies and mental health [9,10,11]. Therefore, this study will explore the mediating role of over-adaptation in the relationship between family functioning and subjective well-being within the framework of family system theory.

1.4. The Moderating Effects of Gender and Rumination

In studies of over-adapatation, significant gender differences have been observed [21,22]. Traditional gender roles in Japan often position women in subordinate roles and assign them greater responsibilities for household and childcare duties [26,27]. Driven by these societal expectations, women may consistently suppress their own needs to conform to the demands of others and societal norms, which can lead to an increased propensity for over-adaptation. Additionally, according to self-focused attention theory, rumination is defined as a tendency to direct attention toward oneself, driven by self-threats, losses, or perceived injustices [28]. Rumination can lead to negative emotions, thereby affecting subjective well-being [29,30,31]. Furthermore, research has shown that individuals with a high tendency for over-adaptation, coupled with higher levels of rumination, exhibit poorer mental health compared to those with lower levels of rumination [32]. Although the external aspects of over-adaptation may have positive functions, those with over-adaptation tendencies may overlook their positive qualities through rumination, focusing instead on their maladaptive selves and repeatedly processing negative information related to the self. This behavior may further reduce their subjective well-being. Therefore, the moderating effects of gender and rumination are also key focuses of this study. The hypotheses are as follows:
Hypothesis 1: 
Family functioning has a positive effect on college students’ subjective well-being. That is, when family functioning scores are higher, subjective well-being scores will also be higher.
Hypothesis 2: 
Over-adaptation mediates the relationship between family functioning and subjective well-being in college students. In other words, higher family functioning scores will reduce over-adaptation, thereby improving subjective well-being scores.
Hypothesis 3: 
Gender moderates the effects of family functioning on over-adaptation and subjective well-being. Specifically, the influence of family functioning on over-adaptation and subjective well-being is greater in women than in men.
Hypothesis 4: 
Rumination moderates the effect of over-adaptation on subjective well-being. That is, the impact of over-adaptation on subjective well-being is greater in individuals with higher levels of rumination than in those with lower levels of rumination.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Procedure and Participants

An online questionnaire survey was conducted among 280 undergraduate students at Japanese universities from July to October 2022. After excluding 59 respondents due to missing values on scale items and 2 respondents who identified as “other” for gender, 219 responses were deemed valid (81 men, 138 women; mean age = 19.62, SD = 1.86). The majority of respondents resided in the Kinki region (84.9%), with the next largest group from the Kanto region (5.9%). By Grade, Sophomores were the most prevalent (49.3%), followed by Freshman (38.4%). Regarding living arrangements, 49.3% were living at home, and the remainder were living alone. Additionally, 79.5% of the respondents had siblings, with the most common sibling position held being the eldest (36.5%), followed by the second-eldest (34.7%). Data were processed using Microsoft Excel and analyzed with SPSS version 28.0 and PROCESS v4.1. The analytical methods included factor analysis and principal component analysis, basic analysis, correlation analysis, mediation analysis, and moderation analysis.

2.2. Measures

Family functioning was assessed through two dimensions: cohesion and family atmosphere [9,33]. Cohesion was measured using a 10-item scale, with responses recorded on a 5-point Likert scale. The items included statements such as “In my family, we help each other when there are difficulties” and “When something needs to be done, the whole family works together”. Family atmosphere was evaluated using a 9-item scale, with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale. Example items were “Feeling warmth” and “Feeling openness”. The sum of these scores was utilized, with higher scores indicating better family functioning. Cronbach’s alpha in the current study was 0.96.
Over-adaptation was assessed using a 31-item scale tailored to university students, utilizing a 5-point Likert scale [34]. This scale encompassed five factors: “solicitude for others”, “living up to one’s expectations”, “need for approval”, “self-restraint”, and “self-insufficiency”. The scores for “solicitude for others”, “living up to one’s expectations”, and “need for approval” were aggregated into a dimension termed “excess external adaptation”, while “self-restraint” and “self-insufficiency” formed the “internal adaptation deficiency” dimension. The included items were phrases such as “I am not confident” and “I cannot express my thoughts”. Cronbach’s alpha in the current study was 0.94.
Subjective well-being was quantified using a 15-item scale, answered on a 4-point Likert scale [35]. The questions included “Do you think life is interesting?” and “Do you think you can handle situations well even when things do not go as planned?”. Higher scores suggested greater happiness. Cronbach’s alpha in the current study was 0.88.
Rumination was measured by a 12-item scale focused on rumination, answered using a 5-point Likert scale [36]. Example statements included “I often think over things that happen to me for a long time” and “After a disagreement or dispute, I tend to think about it for a long time”. Higher scores indicated greater rumination. Cronbach’s alpha in the current study was 0.92.
Demographic measures included queries about gender, age, grade, living situation, current residence, sibling presence, number of siblings, birth order, siblings’ ages, and family composition.

3. Results

3.1. Factor Analysis and Principal Component Analysis

In this study, all scales used were more than 10 years old. To verify whether the basic structure of the scales remained consistent with the original versions, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and principal component analysis (PCA) were performed on each scale. Initially, EFA extracted five factors for the over-adaptation scale, consistent with previous studies. However, the factor loading for item 11 of the subjective well-being scale, “Are you worried about the future?”, was below 0.4, leading to its removal and the subsequent extraction of four factors. Subsequently, PCA was conducted on the cohesion scale, home atmosphere scale, and rumination scale. A single factor was extracted for both the cohesion and home atmosphere scales, aligning with earlier research. For the rumination scale, items with reverse phrasing all showed factor loadings below 0.4. Consequently, item 9 on “I don’t spend time thinking about things that have been done or done”, item 11 on “Unpleasant feelings are easy to get out of my mind”, and item 12 on “I never repeat or reflect on myself for too long” were identified as poorly fitting and addressed in the analysis.

3.2. Basic Analysis

The results of the basic analysis, including reliability analysis for each variable, mean values, and standard deviations, are presented in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively. We referred to the family type classification method of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications Statistics Bureau and the 2018 Survey on Awareness of Independent Support conducted by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. We identified the following prevalence in family structures: households consisting of a couple and multiple children (59%), three-generation households (39%), households consisting of a married couple with one child (33%), single parent and child households (4%), households consisting only of siblings (2%), households comprising grandparents and children (0.4%), and other types of households (1.8%). The reliability of each scale was confirmed with Cronbach’s alpha (α) and omega (ω) coefficients, both exceeding 0.85, indicating high reliability.

3.3. Correlation Analysis

Initially, a correlation analysis was conducted for each variable, with the results presented in Table 3. The analysis revealed that family functioning exhibited a weak negative correlation with the internal aspects of over-adaptation (r = −0.15, p < 0.05) and a moderate positive correlation with subjective well-being (r = 0.43, p < 0.01). Both the internal (r = 0.49, p < 0.01) and external (r = 0.54, p < 0.01) aspects of over-adaptation demonstrated strong positive correlations with rumination. The external aspects of over-adaptation were moderately negatively correlated with subjective well-being (r = −0.51, p < 0.01). Rumination also showed a weak negative correlation with subjective well-being (r = −0.22, p < 0.01). Additionally, when coding gender with female gender indicated as 1 and male gender as 0, females showed a weak positive correlation with both internal (r = 0.17, p < 0.05) and external (r = 0.24 p < 0.01) aspects of over-adaptation, as well as rumination (r = 0.15, p < 0.05). Age demonstrated a weak negative correlation with the internal aspects of over-adaptation (r = 0.17, p < 0.01) and with the proportion of females (r = 0.19, p < 0.01).

3.4. Mediation Analysis

Using SPSS PROCESS Model 6 [37], family functioning was designated as the independent variable, with subjective well-being as the dependent variable and the internal and external aspects of over-adaptation as sequential mediators. Age, gender, grade, and the presence of siblings were included as control variables in the mediation analysis (Figure 1). The model metrics were significant, with R2 = 0.28, F (5, 213) = 3.73, and p < 0.01, indicating a significant chained mediating effect of the internal and external aspects of over-adaptation between family functioning and subjective well-being. Specifically, two mediation models were established: first, “family functioning → internal aspects of over-adaptation → subjective well-being”, and second, “family functioning → internal aspects of over-adaptation → external aspects of over-adaptation → subjective well-being”.
In the mediation results, family functioning had a negative impact on the internal aspects of over-adaptation (β = −0.13, p < 0.01) but a positive impact on subjective well-being (β = 0.16, p < 0.001). Moreover, the internal aspects of over-adaptation positively influenced the external aspects (β = 0.66, p < 0.001) but negatively affected subjective well-being (β = −0.38, p < 0.001). Additionally, the external aspects of over-adaptation had a positive effect on subjective well-being (β = 0.08, p < 0.01). However, family functioning did not significantly influence the external aspects of over-adaptation (β = 0.09, ns). When family functioning was considered as the independent variable and subjective well-being as the dependent variable, the direct effect was 0.16 (95% CI = [0.11, 0.21]). The indirect effect via the internal aspects of over-adaptation was 0.05 (95% CI = [0.03, 0.19]), and the combined indirect effect through both internal and external aspects of over-adaptation was −0.01 (95% CI = [−0.02, −0.0007]). All indirect effects totaled 0.05 (95% CI = [0.01, 0.09]).

3.5. Moderation Analysis

To investigate the moderating effects of gender on the relationship between family functioning, over-adaptation, and subjective well-being, as well as the moderating effects of rumination on the relationship between over-adaptation and subjective well-being, analyses using SPSS PROCESS Models 1 and 8 [37] were conducted (Table 4). The results indicated that the interaction between rumination and the internal aspects of over-adaptation was significant (β = −0.01, p < 0.01), but no other significant interactions were found. The simple slope tests (Figure 2) revealed that the 50th percentile of rumination scores should be used as the cut-off point. Specifically, when the rumination scores were low (i.e., at the 16th percentile), the influence of the internal aspects of over-adaptation on subjective well-being was weakly negative (β = −0.25, p < 0.001, and 95% CI = [−0.38, −0.12]). Furthermore, when the rumination scores were high (i.e., the 84th percentile), the impact was moderately negative (β = −0.46, p < 0.001, and 95% CI = [−0.56, −0.34]).

4. Discussion

This study, conducted among Japanese university students, investigated the influence of family functioning on subjective well-being, with particular attention paid to the mediating effects of over-adaptation and the moderating roles of gender and rumination. The findings supported Hypothesis 1, confirming that family functioning has a positive effect on subjective well-being. Hypothesis 2 was also validated, demonstrating that over-adaptation mediates the relationship between family functioning and subjective well-being. Additionally, the interaction between rumination and the internal aspects of over-adaptation was identified, providing partial support for Hypothesis 4. However, Hypothesis 3, which proposed gender differences in these effects, was not supported.
The link between family functioning and well-being was validated, aligning with earlier research findings [38,39]. Enhanced family cohesion and a positive family climate significantly contribute to the subjective well-being of university students. Family cohesion, indicative of a deep emotional connection within the family, plays an essential role for university students, particularly when facing developmental challenges such as identity formation [40]. Previous research [41] has shown that children raised in loving, supportive families are positively predicted to have clearer self-concepts later in life, which leads to improved subjective well-being [42,43].
The relationship between family functioning and subjective well-being has been validated through the mediating role of over-adaptation. The results indicate that good family functioning serves as a protective factor, effectively mitigating the potential negative impact of over-adaptation on university students’ mental health, thereby maintaining a higher level of subjective well-being. This finding aligns with previous studies, which suggest that students from well-functioning families demonstrate greater resilience and adaptability when facing academic and social challenges [10,44], leading to higher subjective well-being [10,21,45]. Effective communication and positive emotional exchanges among family members contribute to the development of healthy socialization patterns and problem-solving strategies, thus enhancing students’ adaptability. Additionally, the study reveals the positive significance of over-adaptation in external aspects. Altruistic behaviors, such as catering to external expectations and considering the needs of others, help foster interpersonal relationships [46]. In Japanese society, individuals seek a sense of identity and belonging by maintaining and strengthening group relationships. As a result, this other-centered behavioral pattern not only strengthens individuals’ connections with others but also contributes to a supportive and cooperative social environment. For Japanese people living in a collectivist culture, this is an important way to achieve subjective well-being.
Hypothesis 3 was not supported, indicating no gender differences in the effects of family functioning on over-adaptation and subjective well-being. This result contradicts previous research findings [22]. The unbalanced sample size (81 males and 138 females) may explain this outcome. Additionally, differences in educational levels could also be a contributing factor. Most of the data were collected from students at a University, a context in which women tend to have higher levels of education and may be more inclined to critically reflect on unreasonable expectations from society and family.
The partial support for Hypothesis 4 revealed that individuals with high rumination tendencies experience a greater impact of the internal aspects of over-adaptation on subjective well-being than those with low rumination tendencies. This is because individuals prone to over-adaptation who engage in rumination tend to focus on maladaptive aspects of the self while ignoring their positive attributes, leading to the repetitive processing of negative information related to the self, which further lowers their subjective well-being. Conversely, no moderating effect of rumination was observed for the external aspects of over-adaptation. This may be due to the fact that, while over-adaptation’s external aspects like consideration for others, efforts to meet expectations, and a desire to be well regarded emphasize interpersonal demands and evaluations, rumination tends to direct attention inward [28]. Since there is a limit to the processing resources available for attention, it is challenging to focus simultaneously on others and oneself.
This study has several limitations. Firstly, the small sample size in this study limits the generalizability of the results and may affect the robustness of statistical inferences. Additionally, the gender imbalance in the sample poses a concern. Therefore, in future research, we plan to increase the sample size and strive for a balanced gender ratio to enhance the representativeness of the study and the reliability of its conclusions. Secondly, while family functioning was shown to negatively impact the internal aspects of over-adaptation and positively influence the external aspects among university students, the magnitude of these effects was relatively small. One possible explanation is that, during adolescence, both males and females undergo psychological separation from parental influence [47], shifting their relational focus toward friendships and romantic relationships [48]. However, although there are numerous studies examining over-adaptation in friendships, there is a notable gap in research exploring over-adaptation within the context of romantic relationships. Thirdly, the external aspects of over-adaptation were found to enhance subjective well-being and exert a positive influence, although this effect was weak. This could be attributed to the role of external evaluations. Positive evaluations from others can boost mental health, happiness, and satisfaction, whereas negative evaluations can diminish mental health, potentially neutralizing the overall effect [49]. Since over-adaptation possesses certain adaptability and functionality [6,21,25], it is necessary to explore more positive aspects of over-adaptation in future research. Finally, a basic demographic analysis revealed that 80% of the participants had siblings, and 60% came from households consisting of a couple and multiple children. Consequently, future studies should take sibling relationships into consideration. While much of the existing research on over-adaptation has focused on dyadic (father–child, mother–child) or triadic (father–mother–child) relationships, the impact of siblings has largely been overlooked. According to the meta-analysis [50], better sibling relationships are associated with reduced maladaptive behaviors in children, whereas sibling conflict or discrimination can lead to significant problems [51,52]. This study aimed to reflect a more comprehensive emotional connection between individuals and their families, including siblings and grandparents; however, it leaves unresolved questions about the role of these significant others in over-adaptation. Future research should explore sibling relationships, including gender and age differences among siblings, to gain further insight.

5. Conclusions

Overall, the findings indicate that improved family functioning alleviates the negative direct effects of over-adaptation, thereby supporting higher levels of subjective well-being among university students. Additionally, the degree of rumination appears to influence the extent to which over-adaptation impacts subjective well-being.
The significance of this study lies in its broadened application of family systems theory to the college student demographic, highlighting how family functioning influences adaptability and mental health during early adulthood. This research examines the lasting impact of family relationships, which, despite the shift in college students’ relational focus toward friendships and romantic partnerships as highlighted by psychological separation [47], remain profoundly influential. The adaptation strategies cultivated within the family, as the foundational social unit, serve as strong predictors of an individual’s ability to navigate and adapt to future interpersonal relationships. Consequently, mental health professionals and family educators are urged to prioritize the enhancement of family communication through methods like family therapy or parent training programs, fostering deeper understanding and support among family members. Within the context of Japanese culture, over-adaptation is identified as a precursor to maladjustment, representing a critical intervention point due to its potential risk [24]. Prevalent studies on child adaptability focus on internalizing or externalizing problems [53]. However, this study demonstrates that both the internal and external aspects of over-adaptation can impact subjective well-being. Incorporating over-adaptation into the research framework on children’s adaptability not only enriches our understanding of maladjustment’s developmental processes but also underscores the necessity for practical interventions. Training for educators and mental health professionals to recognize and address early signs of over-adaptation is essential, as is the inclusion of relevant content in parental education programs to aid parents in supporting their children effectively. Additionally, considering rumination’s moderating role between over-adaptation and subjective well-being, mental health services should tailor their approaches, particularly offering targeted cognitive–behavioral therapies for students prone to high rumination. Moreover, while studies often concentrate on direct familial interactions, the broader perception of family atmosphere—encompassing the overall emotional and psychological milieu established by the family unit—is less frequently addressed yet vitally important. Acknowledging the influence of family atmosphere can enhance our comprehension of how family dynamics impact individual development, necessitating not just the analysis of specific familial roles and interactions but also the assessment of the family’s emotional and psychological climate. In practice, mental health professionals must develop and utilize specialized strategies to assist families in collectively nurturing a more positive home environment, integral for both family therapy and counseling.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.Z.; methodology, M.Z. and H.U.; software, M.Z.; investigation, M.Z. and H.U.; data curation, M.Z; writing—original draft preparation, M.Z; writing—review and editing, M.Z. and H.U.; visualization, M.Z.; supervision, H.U. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study received ethical approval from the Ethics Review Committee of the Ritsumeikan University College of Comprehensive Psychology and Graduate School of Human Sciences (review number: 2022-psy-012).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all the subjects involved in this study.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be available upon request to the first author.

Acknowledgments

We wish to acknowledge the university students who participated in this survey. We also wish to extend our heartfelt thanks to Rie Takamatsu for her meticulous guidance and support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Youth 04 00113 g001
Figure 1. Serial mediation model testing over-adaptation as a mediator between family functioning and subjective well-being. Note. ** p < 0.01, and *** p < 0.001.
Figure 1. Serial mediation model testing over-adaptation as a mediator between family functioning and subjective well-being. Note. ** p < 0.01, and *** p < 0.001.
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Figure 2. The moderating role of rumination in the impact of internal aspects of over-adaptation on subjective well-being.
Figure 2. The moderating role of rumination in the impact of internal aspects of over-adaptation on subjective well-being.
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Table 1. Descriptive variables (N = 219).
Table 1. Descriptive variables (N = 219).
Variable Number%
GenderMale8137
Female13863
Sibling presenceYes17479.5
No4520.5
Order of siblings First8036.5
Second7634.7
Third or later188.2
Current Kinki region18684.9
Kanto region135.9
Other209.2
Living arrangement With parents10849.3
Living alone9141.6
Dormitory, boarding, or other209.1
Family structureHousehold with one couple and multiple children12959
Three-generation household3918
Household with one couple and one child3315
Other188
GradeFreshman8438.4
Sophomore10849.3
Junior104.6
Senior and above177.8
Table 2. Reliability and descriptive statistics of variables.
Table 2. Reliability and descriptive statistics of variables.
Variable αωM SD
Family Functioning0.96 0.96 63.7913.82
Internal Aspects of Over-adaptation0.91 0.91 34.239.83
External Aspects of Over-adaptation0.93 0.93 72.0415.04
Over-adaptation0.94 0.93 106.2621.33
Subjective Well-being0.88 0.88 39.426.73
Rumination0.92 0.92 31.388.18
Age 19.621.86
Grade 1.820.86
Table 3. Correlations between all variables.
Table 3. Correlations between all variables.
Variable12345678
1. Family Functioning1
2. Internal Aspects of Over-adaptation−0.15 *1
3. External Aspects of Over-adaptation−0.050.78 **1
4. Over-adaptation0.030.45 **0.91 **1
5. Subjective Well-being0.43 **−0.51 **−0.27 **−0.051
6. Rumination−0.110.49 **0.60 **0.54 **−0.22 **1
7. Gender0.060.17 *0.24 **0.25 **−0.010.15 *1
8. Age−0.10−0.17 **−0.10−0.15 *−0.01−0.01−0.19 **1
Note. * p < 0.05, and ** p < 0.01. Regarding gender, female gender is coded as 1 and male gender as 0.
Table 4. Moderation analysis of gender and rumination on psychological outcomes.
Table 4. Moderation analysis of gender and rumination on psychological outcomes.
VariableBSEpLLCIULCIR2F
DV: Internal Aspects of Over-adaptation
Family Functioning × Gender0.1560.0970.109−0.0350.3460.0923.566 **
DV: External Aspects of Over-adaptation
Family Functioning × Gender0.1170.1500.435−0.1780.4120.0672.555 *
DV: Subjective Well-being
Family Functioning × Gender−0.0980.0530.066−0.2030.0060.42419.315 ***
DV: Subjective Well-being
Internal Aspects of Over-adaptation × Rumination−0.0120.0050.010 **−0.022−0.0030.30015.140 ***
DV: Subjective Well-being
External Aspects of Over-adaptation × Rumination−0.0060.0030.076−0.0120.0010.0752.870 *
Note. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, and *** p < 0.001. DV is the dependent variable. LLCI and ULCI represent the lower and upper limits of the 95% confidence interval, respectively.
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Zhang, M.; Utsunomiya, H. The Role of Family Functioning in Over-Adaptation and Subjective Well-Being Among Japan’s Youth: The Moderating Effect of Gender Differences and Rumination. Youth 2024, 4, 1787-1799. https://doi.org/10.3390/youth4040113

AMA Style

Zhang M, Utsunomiya H. The Role of Family Functioning in Over-Adaptation and Subjective Well-Being Among Japan’s Youth: The Moderating Effect of Gender Differences and Rumination. Youth. 2024; 4(4):1787-1799. https://doi.org/10.3390/youth4040113

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Mengting, and Hiroshi Utsunomiya. 2024. "The Role of Family Functioning in Over-Adaptation and Subjective Well-Being Among Japan’s Youth: The Moderating Effect of Gender Differences and Rumination" Youth 4, no. 4: 1787-1799. https://doi.org/10.3390/youth4040113

APA Style

Zhang, M., & Utsunomiya, H. (2024). The Role of Family Functioning in Over-Adaptation and Subjective Well-Being Among Japan’s Youth: The Moderating Effect of Gender Differences and Rumination. Youth, 4(4), 1787-1799. https://doi.org/10.3390/youth4040113

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