Football Culture and Domestic Violence: Dissecting the Link among a Focus Group of Non-Abusive Youth Football Fan’s
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Football in Britain
1.2. Identity and Football
1.3. Individual and Collective Identities
1.4. Football Culture and Hooliganism
1.5. Football Culture and Alcohol Consumption
1.6. Football Fandom and Gambling
1.7. Football Culture and Domestic Violence
1.8. The Current Study
- To gain a more detailed understanding of potential reasons why a relationship appears to exist between football fandom and the perpetration of domestic violence.
- To better understand the ways in which football culture and identity may impact the likelihood of violent behaviour from the perspective of fans familiar with it but who are non-violent.
- To understand non-abusive football fans’ perceptions of how the problem of domestic violence is currently dealt with and generate recommendations based on these.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample and Sampling Procedures
2.2. Study Procedure
2.3. Ethical Procedures
2.4. Thematic Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Theme 1: Behaviours
3.1.1. Alcohol
- Jamie:
- “I think especially on big events like the Euros and the World Cup, it’s a lot earlier in the day than any other because it’s so popular… like… on a World Cup match day for example, getting to the pub at like twelve and drinking all day just so you can get a table”
- All:
- [Laugh and look at each other]
- Jamie:
- “So extensive drinking”
- Seth:
- “Yeah, chaos” [Laughs]
- Researcher:
- “So, you’d all sort of agree, that the pub plays a big role?”
- All:
- “Ah yeah”
- Jamie:
- “Yeah, 100%” [All nod in agreement]
- Alex:
- “Especially during England games for sure”
- Jamie:
- “You need a bit of…”
- Seth:
- “Yeah, you’ve got have a bit with the football”
- Freddie:
- “Can’t just have one”
- All:
- [Laugh and look at each other]
3.1.2. Violence
- Seth:
- “Tryna fight police”
- Olly:
- “Basically the Football Factory film”
- Alex:
- “Definitely more violent than other sports”
- Freddie:
- “Fighting”
- Jamie:
- “Swearing”
- Seth:
- “Being like aggressive [looks around at others] and like rude to like, especially like refs, cos like obviously if you’re in the stadium, ref makes a bad decision, you’ll have people that would shout and swear at him and even at the pub, like, you do get angry”
3.2. Theme 2: Game Specific Factors
3.2.1. Game Intensity
- Jamie:
- “I think just because you win a match as well, it doesn’t mean it was like an easy game, it could’ve still been a very stressful game to watch which is obviously going to build up anger as well, say it was like close throughout the whole game, like tension levels are still going to be quite high”
- Olly:
- “I guess it’s like, tryna channel your anger, and if like… you’re going home, and you’ve got a partner or something… then your anger is channelled at them, rather than if… if you’re in the pub with your mates… you… kinda can be, just a bit crappy… crappy to everyone else, rather than one single person that’s probably where it brings out the worst [Seth nods and agrees] that probably explains why the rates go up”
3.2.2. Certainty of Result
- Seth:
- “Yeah I think there was so much stress as a country, like the whole, It’s coming home thing [Olly + Jamie laugh], and I think, even though deep down people may not have like actually thought it was gonna happen, just after winning like game after game, you just slowly get that belief and then obviously losing, it kind of, everything then comes crashing down like… cos everyone was like enjoying it the whole time through the tournament and then getting knocked out… is just like… now what”
3.3. Theme 3: Reduction
3.3.1. Awareness
- Seth:
- “Yeah, it could also just be like education, just for like the actual abuses, because where it’s… not exactly clear…people might not be doing it in like an intentionally harmful way, but it might be making their partner, or whoever else they’re in a relationship with, it might make them feel uncomfortable and it might according to the definition be domestic violence, but they might not actually know what they’re doing is… like… serious, so it’s just actually educating people on their behaviours and what they’re doing and basically just reinforcing that it is wrong”
3.3.2. Prevention
- Seth:
- “I think that’s one of the dangers of it aswell, because like where, like my dad got me into football, it’s like he had a season ticket and like I was going to the games with him so if he was like behaving in a certain way and like… fitting into the football culture you’re gonna grow up seeing that every week, and then you’ll be like ah”
- Olly:
- “think it’s normal yeah”
- Seth:
- “that’s how you’re supposed to behave in football, so I’ll keep doing the same, and it will just keep going from generations”
- Seth:
- “action needs to be stronger from the police and whoever else gets Involved, and like all the clubs and stuff have to actually agree that if there are reports, and it is proven then they get banned for life”
3.4. Study Limitations
3.5. Research Implications
3.6. Future Research Recommendations
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Gov.uk. Domestic Abuse Act 2021. 2021. Available online: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2021/17/contents/enacted (accessed on 1 June 2023).
- Conroy, E.; Willmott, D.; Murphy, A.; Widanaralalage, K. Does Perpetrator Gender Influence Attitudes towards Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)? Examining the Relationship between Male-Perpetrated and Female-Perpetrated IPV Attitudes among a Sample of UK Young Adults. Ment. Health Soc. Incl. 2023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Debowska, A.; Boduszek, D.; Willmott, D.; Jones, A. The None in Three Victim Responsiveness Assessment (Ni3: VRA): A new outcome measure for intimate partner violence (IPV) prevention programmes. J. Child. Serv. 2019, 14, 97–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gov.uk. Serious Crime Act 2015. 2015. Available online: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/9/contents/enacted (accessed on 18 July 2023).
- Lilley, C.; Willmott, D.; Mojtahedi, D.; Labhardt, D. Intimate Partner Rape: A Review of Six Core Myths Surrounding Women’s Conduct and the Consequences of Intimate Partner Rape. Soc. Sci. 2023, 12, 34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Office for National Statistics (ONS). Domestic Abuse in England and Wales Overview—Office for National Statistics. 2022. Available online: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/bulletins/domesticabuseinenglandandwalesoverview/november2022 (accessed on 24 January 2023).
- Boethius, S.; Åkerström, M. Revealing hidden realities: Disclosing domestic abuse to informal others. Nord. J. Criminol. 2020, 21, 186–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Davis, J.W.; Parks, S.N.; Kaups, K.L.; Bennink, L.D.; Bilello, J.F. Victims of Domestic Violence on the Trauma Service: Unrecognized and Underreported. J. Trauma Inj. Infect. Crit. Care 2003, 54, 352–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Richardson, J.; Feder, G. Domestic Violence: A hidden problem for general practice. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 1996, 46, 239–242. [Google Scholar]
- Birdsey, E.; Snowball, L. Reporting Violence to Police: A Survey of Victims Attending Domestic Violence Services; Department of Attorney General and Justice, New South Wales Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research: New South Wales, Australia, 2013.
- Iesue, L.; González, J.; Martinez, K.V. Domestic Violence during COVID-19: Insights from Guatemala. Sociol. Crime Law Deviance 2023, 28, 43–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kirkman, G.; Hulley, J.; Bailey, L.; Latif, A.; Jones, A.; Gibbs, G.; Gomersall, T. Young Women’s Experiences of Intimate Partner Violence in the UK and Voices of Men Who Perpetrate It: A Qualitative Study; University of Huddersfield: Huddersfield, UK, 2021; Available online: https://pure.hud.ac.uk/en/publications/young-womens-experiences-of-intimate-partner-violence-in-the-uk-a (accessed on 24 January 2023).
- Sprague, S.; Madden, K.; Simunovic, N.; Godin, K.; Pham, N.K.; Bhandari, M.; Goslings, J.C. Barriers to Screening for Intimate Partner Violence. Women Health 2012, 52, 587–605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ivandic, R.; Kirchmaier, T.; Torres-Blas, N. Football, Alcohol and Domestic Abuse; CEP Discussion Paper No.1781; Centre for Economic Performance (CEP), London School of Economics and Political Science: London, UK, 2021; Available online: https://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/download/dp1781.pdf (accessed on 24 January 2023).
- Adubato, B. The Promise of Violence. J. Sport Soc. Issues 2015, 40, 22–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boutilier, S.; Jadidzadeh, A.; Esina, E.; Wells, L.; Kneebone, R.D. The Connection between Professional Sporting Events, Holidays and Domestic Violence in Calgary, Alberta; SPP Research Paper No; The School of Public Policy, University of Calgary: Calgary, AB, Canada, 2017; Volume 10. [Google Scholar]
- Kirby, S.; Francis, B.; O’Flaherty, R. Can the FIFA World Cup Football (Soccer) Tournament Be Associated with an Increase in Domestic Abuse? J. Res. Crime Delinq. 2014, 51, 259–276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- The Football Association. The History of the FA. 2020. Available online: https://www.thefa.com/about-football-association/what-we-do/history (accessed on 24 January 2023).
- FIFA. About FIFA. 2022. Available online: https://www.fifa.com/about-fifa (accessed on 24 January 2023).
- The Football Association. Entries, Exemptions, Prize Fund and Round Dates for Emirates FA Cup and FA Youth Cup 2021–22 Season. 2 July 2021. Available online: https://www.thefa.com/news/2021/jul/02/20210702-emirates-fa-cup-and-fa-youth-cup-entries-exemptions-prize-fund-details-2021-22-season (accessed on 24 January 2023).
- The Football Association. Financial Results for 2020–21 Season. 29 April 2022. Available online: https://www.thefa.com/news/2022/apr/29/financial-results-2020-21-20220429 (accessed on 24 January 2023).
- Purves, R.I.; Critchlow, N.; Giulianotti, R.; Hunt, K.; Morrow, S.; Bancroft, A. Sport Fan Attitudes on Alcohol: Insights from a Survey of Football Supporters in Scotland and England. J. Sport Soc. Issues 2022, 46, 199–218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gibbons, T. English national identity and the national football team: The view of contemporary English fans. Soccer Soc. 2011, 12, 865–879. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Robinson, J.S.R. Tackling the anxieties of the English: Searching for the nation through football. Soccer Soc. 2008, 9, 215–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aughey, A. The Politics of Englishness; Manchester University Press: Manchester, UK, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Armstrong, G.; Giulianotti, R. Football Cultures and Identities; Macmillan: New York, NY, USA, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Kitching, G. The Origins of Football: History, Ideology and the Making of “The People’s Game”. Hist. Workshop J. 2015, 79, 127–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malcolm, D.; Jones, I.; Waddington, I. The people’s game? Football spectatorship and demographic change. Soccer Soc. 2000, 1, 129–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walvin, J. The People’s Game; Allen Lane: London, UK, 1975. [Google Scholar]
- Walvin, J. The People’s Game: The History of Football Revisited; Mainstream Publishing: Edinburgh, UK, 2004. [Google Scholar]
- Walvin, J.; McIntosh, P.C. Review of The Peoples Game—The Social History of British Football. J. Sport Hist. 1976, 3, 97–99. [Google Scholar]
- Madichie, N. Management implications of foreign players in the English Premiership League football. Manag. Decis. 2009, 47, 24–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tomlinson, A.; Young, C. National Identity and Global Sports Events: Culture, Politics, and Spectacle in the Olympics and the Football World Cup; State University of New York Press: Albany, NY, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Desbordes, M. Marketing and Football; Routledge: Abingdon, UK, 2012. [Google Scholar]
- Johnsen, H.; Solvoll, M. The Demand for Televised Football. Eur. Sport Manag. Q. 2007, 7, 311–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Morrow, S. The New Business of Football: Accountability and Finance in Football; Palgrave Macmillan: London, UK, 1999. [Google Scholar]
- BBC News. Euro 2020 Final: TV Audience Peaked at 31 m as England Lost on Penalties. BBC News. 12 July 2021. Available online: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-57802981 (accessed on 24 January 2023).
- Stoll, J. Number of TV Viewers of the Euros Finals 2021. Statista. 22 July 2021. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/556302/average-number-of-individuals-that-viewed-the-finals-euros-on-tv-by-match-uk/ (accessed on 24 January 2023).
- Stone, C. Football: Spectacularly insignificant or unspectacularly significant? Soccer Soc. 2014, 18, 445–461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spandler, H.; Roy, A.; Mckeown, M. Using Football Metaphor to Engage Men in Therapeutic Support. J. Soc. Work Pract. 2013, 28, 229–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grosvenor Sport. English Football League Pyramid System Explained. Grosvenor Blog. 21 April 2021. Available online: https://blog.grosvenorcasinos.com/english-football-league-pyramid-guide (accessed on 24 January 2023).
- Dixon, N. The Ethics of Supporting Sports Teams. J. Appl. Philos. 2001, 18, 149–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tapp, A. The loyalty of football fans—We’ll support you evermore? J. Database Mark. Cust. Strategy Manag. 2004, 11, 203–215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brooks, O. Football, Fandom and Consumption, 1st ed.; Routledge: Abingdon, UK, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Davis, L. Football fandom and authenticity: A critical discussion of historical and contemporary perspectives. Soccer Soc. 2015, 16, 422–436. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Heere, B.; James, J.D. Stepping Outside the Lines: Developing a Multi-dimensional Team Identity Scale Based on Social Identity Theory. Sport Manag. Rev. 2007, 10, 65–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McFarland, A. Sport, mass consumerism, and the body in modern Spain. Sport Soc. 2008, 11, 607–614. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hunt, S. Master Status. In The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology; Wiley-Blackwell: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tajfel, H.; Turner, J.C. The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In Political Psychology; Psychology Press: London, UK, 2004; pp. 276–293. [Google Scholar]
- Brewer, M.B. In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis. Psychol. Bull. 1979, 86, 307–324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fabel, M.; Rainer, H. How Much Violence Does Football Hooliganism Cause? SSRN Electron. J. 2021, 225, 104970. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dunning, E.; Murphy, P.J.; Williams, J. The Roots of Football Hooliganism (RLE Sports Studies); Routledge: London, UK, 2014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Armstrong, G.; Giulianotti, R. Avenues of contestation. Football hooligans running and ruling urban spaces1. Soc. Anthropol. 2007, 10, 211–238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Malcolm, D.; Waddington, I. Scholar, gentleman and player: A tribute to Eric Dunning. Sport Soc. 2020, 23, 1581–1586. Available online: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/17430437.2020.1814570 (accessed on 25 July 2023). [CrossRef]
- Spaaij, R. Understanding Football Hooliganism: A Comparison of Six Western European Football Clubs; Amsterdam University Press: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2006. [Google Scholar]
- Dunning, E. Sport as a Male Preserve: Notes on the Social Sources of Masculine Identity and its Transformations. Theory Cult. Soc. 1986, 3, 79–90. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fanti, K.A.; Phylactou, E.; Georgiou, G. Who is the Hooligan? The Role of Psychopathic Traits. Deviant Behav. 2019, 42, 492–502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Russell, G.W. Sport riots: A social–psychological review. Aggress. Violent Behav. 2004, 9, 353–378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spaaij, R. Football hooliganism as a transnational phenomenon: Past and present analysis: A critique—More specificity and less generality. Int. J. Hist. Sport 2007, 24, 411–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Hiel, A.; Hautman, L.; Cornelis, I.; De Clercq, B. Football hooliganism: Comparing self-awareness and social identity theory explanations. J. Community Appl. Soc. Psychol. 2007, 17, 169–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dunning, E. Towards a Sociological Understanding of Football Hooliganism as a World Phenomenon. Eur. J. Crim. Policy Res. 2000, 8, 141–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jewell, R.T.; Simmons, R.; Szymanski, S. Bad for Business? The Effects of Hooliganism on English Professional Football Clubs. J. Sports Econ. 2014, 15, 429–450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spaaij, R. The prevention of football hooliganism: A transnational perspective. In Actas del X Congreso Internacional de Historia del Deporte; CESH: Seville, Spain, 2005; pp. 1–10. [Google Scholar]
- Durkheim, E. Suicide; Routledge: London, UK, 2005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Merton, R.K. Social Structure and Anomie. Am. Sociol. Rev. 1938, 3, 672–682. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohen, A.K. Delinquent Boys; The Culture of the Gang; Free Press: Glencoe, IL, USA, 1955. [Google Scholar]
- Spaaij, R. Men Like Us, Boys Like Them. J. Sport Soc. Issues 2008, 32, 369–392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cleland, J.; Cashmore, E. Football Fans’ Views of Violence in British Football. J. Sport Soc. Issues 2016, 40, 124–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burgess, R.L.; Akers, R.L. A Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory of Criminal Behavior. Soc. Probl. 1966, 14, 128–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, S.; Han, K. Understanding soccer team supporters’ behavior and culture in a globalized society from social learning theory. Asia-Pac. J. Health Sport Phys. Educ. 2012, 3, 65–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Newson, M. Football, fan violence, and identity fusion. Int. Rev. Sociol. Sport 2017, 54, 431–444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Elias, N. Chapter 6. The Genesis of Sport as a Sociological Problem. In Sport: Readings from a Sociological Perspective; Dunning, E., Ed.; University of Toronto Press: Toronto, ON, Canada, 1972; pp. 88–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kerr, J.H.; de Kock, H. Aggression, violence, and the death of a Dutch soccer hooligan: A reversal theory explanation. Aggress. Behav. 2001, 28, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sporting Events (Control of Alcohol etc.) Act. 1985. Available online: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1985/57/contents/enacted (accessed on 1 July 2023).
- Public Order Act. 1986. Available online: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1986/64/enacted (accessed on 24 January 2023).
- Football Spectators Act. 1989. Available online: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1989/37/contents/enacted (accessed on 24 January 2023).
- Football (Offences and Disorder) Act. 1999. Available online: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1999/21/contents/enacted (accessed on 24 January 2023).
- Football (Disorder) Act. 2000. Available online: https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2000/25/contents/enacted (accessed on 24 January 2023).
- Stead, D.; Rookwood, J. Responding to football disorder, policing the British football fan. J. Qual. Res. Sports Stud. 2007, 1, 33–41. [Google Scholar]
- Barclay, P. England, a suitable case for treatment. In Hooligan Wars: Causes and Effects of Football Violence; Mainstream Publishing: Edinburgh, UK, 2002; pp. 193–197. [Google Scholar]
- Stott, C.; Reicher, S. How conflict escalates: The inter-group dynamics of collective football crowd ‘violence’. Sociology 1998, 32, 353–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stott, C.; Pearson, G. Football Banning Orders, Proportionality, and Public Order Policing. Howard J. Crim. Justice 2006, 45, 241–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gornall, J. World Cup 2014: Festival of football or alcohol? BMJ 2014, 348, g3772. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pearson, G.; Sale, A. “On the Lash”—Revisiting the effectiveness of alcohol controls at football matches. Polic. Soc. 2011, 21, 150–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Palmer, C. Key Themes and Research Agendas in the Sport-Alcohol Nexus. J. Sport Soc. Issues 2011, 35, 168–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parker, R.N. Alcohol and Violence: Connections, Evidence and Possibilities for Prevention. J. Psychoact. Drugs 2004, 36 (Suppl. S2), 157–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Graham, K.; West, P.; Wells, S. Evaluating theories of alcohol-related aggression using observations of young adults in bars. Addiction 2000, 95, 847–863. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Giancola, P.R.; Levinson, C.A.; Corman, M.D.; Godlaski, A.J.; Morris, D.H.; Phillips, J.P.; Holt, J.C.D. Men and women, alcohol and aggression. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2009, 17, 154–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rosenbloom, T.; Beigel, A.; Perlman, A.; Eldror, E. Parental and offspring assessment of driving capability under the influence of drugs or alcohol: Gender and inter-generational differences. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2010, 42, 2125–2131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Beck, A.; Heinz, A. Alcohol-Related Aggression. Dtsch. Arztebl. Int. 2013, 110, 711–715. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Graham, K.; Leonard, K.E.; Room, R.; Wild, T.C.; Pihl, R.O.; Bois, C.; Single, E. Current directions in research on understanding and preventing intoxicated aggression. Addiction 1998, 93, 659–676. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gussler-Burkhardt, N.L.; Giancola, P.R. A further examination of gender differences in alcohol-related aggression. J. Stud. Alcohol 2005, 66, 413–422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pihl, R.O.; Lau, M.L.; Assaad, J.-M. Aggressive disposition, alcohol, and aggression. Aggress. Behav. 1997, 23, 11–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fagan, J. Intoxication and Aggression. Crime Justice 1990, 13, 241–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barnwell, S.S.; Borders, A.; Earleywine, M. Alcohol-aggression expectancies and dispositional aggression moderate the relationship between alcohol consumption and alcohol-related violence. Aggress. Behav. 2006, 32, 517–527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nepomuceno, T.C.C.; de Moura, J.A.; e Silva, L.C.; Cabral Seixas Costa, A.P. Alcohol and violent behavior among football spectators: An empirical assessment of Brazilian’s criminalization. Int. J. Law Crime Justice 2017, 51, 34–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jones, C.; Pinder, R.; Robinson, G. Gambling Sponsorship and Advertising in British Football: A Critical Account. Sport Ethics Philos. 2019, 14, 163–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Newall, P.W.S.; Moodie, C.; Reith, G.; Stead, M.; Critchlow, N.; Morgan, A.; Dobbie, F. Gambling Marketing from 2014 to 2018: A Literature Review. Curr. Addict. Rep. 2019, 6, 49–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Purves, R.I.; Critchlow, N.; Morgan, A.; Stead, M.; Dobbie, F. Examining the frequency and nature of gambling marketing in televised broadcasts of professional sporting events in the United Kingdom. Public Health 2020, 184, 71–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nower, L.; Blaszczynski, A. Impulsivity and Pathological Gambling: A Descriptive Model. Int. Gambl. Stud. 2006, 6, 61–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Polat, E.; Yıldız, K. The Effect of Gambling Motivation of Sport Spectators on Propensity for Violence in Sport. J. Gambl. Stud. 2021, 37, 203–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Korman, L.M.; Collins, J.; Dutton, D.; Dhayananthan, B.; Littman-Sharp, N.; Skinner, W. Problem Gambling and Intimate Partner Violence. J. Gambl. Stud. 2007, 24, 13–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eckhardt, C.I.; Samper, R.E.; Murphy, C.M. Anger Disturbances among Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Violence. J. Interpers. Violence 2008, 23, 1600–1617. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dickson, A.; Jennings, C.; Koop, G. Domestic Violence and Football in Glasgow: Are Reference Points Relevant? Oxf. Bull. Econ. Stat. 2016, 78, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Office for National Statistics (ONS). Domestic Abuse Victim Characteristics, England and Wales—Office for National Statistics. 2019. Available online: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/crimeandjustice/articles/domesticabusevictimcharacteristicsenglandandwales/yearendingmarch2019 (accessed on 24 January 2023).
- Chantler, K.; Robbins, R.; Baker, V.; Stanley, N. Learning from domestic homicide reviews in England and Wales. Health Soc. Care Community 2020, 28, 485–493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hagemann-White, C.; Kavemann, B.; Kindler, H.; Meysen, T.; Puchert, R. Review of Research on Factors at Play in Perpetration of Violence against Women, Violence against Children and Sexual Orientation Violence: A Multi-Level Interactive Model; Report to the Directorate-General Justice in the European Commission; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium, 2010. [Google Scholar]
- Foran, H.M.; O’Leary, K.D. Alcohol and intimate partner violence: A meta-analytic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2008, 28, 1222–1234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leonard, K.E.; Quigley, B.M. Thirty years of research show alcohol to be a cause of intimate partner violence: Future research needs to identify who to treat and how to treat them. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2017, 36, 7–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mahapatro, M.; Gupta, R.; Gupta, V. The Risk Factor of Domestic Violence in India. Indian J. Community Med. 2012, 37, 153–157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fazel, S.; Smith, E.N.; Chang, Z.; Geddes, J.R. Risk factors for interpersonal violence: An umbrella review of meta-analyses. Br. J. Psychiatry 2018, 213, 609–614. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Herbert, A.; Heron, J.; Barter, C.; Szilassy, E.; Barnes, M.; Howe, L.D.; Feder, G.; Fraser, A. Risk factors for intimate partner violence and abuse among adolescents and young adults: Findings from a UK population-based cohort. Wellcome Open Res. 2021, 5, 176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spencer, C.; Mallory, A.B.; Cafferky, B.M.; Kimmes, J.G.; Beck, A.R.; Stith, S.M. Mental health factors and intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization: A meta-analysis. Psychol. Violence 2019, 9, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohen, L.E.; Felson, M. Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach. Am. Sociol. Rev. 1979, 44, 588–608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vazquez, S.P.; Stohr, M.K.; Purkiss, M. Intimate Partner Violence Incidence and Characteristics: Idaho NIBRS 1995 to 2001 Data. Crim. Justice Policy Rev. 2005, 16, 99–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beirness, D.J.; Beasley, E.E. A Roadside Survey of Alcohol and Drug Use among Drivers in British Columbia. Traffic Inj. Prev. 2010, 11, 215–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Haines, P.S.; Hama, M.Y.; Guilkey, D.K.; Popkin, B.M. Weekend Eating in the United States Is Linked with Greater Energy, Fat, and Alcohol Intake. Obes. Res. 2003, 11, 945–949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brooks-Hay, O.; Lombard, N. “Home game”: Domestic abuse and football. J. Gend. Based Violence 2018, 2, 93–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cismaru, M.; Lavack, A.M. Campaigns Targeting Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Violence. Trauma Violence Abus. 2011, 12, 183–197. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Harris, J.M.; Novalis-Marine, C.; Amend, R.W.; Surprenant, Z.J. Promoting free online CME for intimate partner violence: What works at what cost? J. Contin. Educ. Health Prof. 2009, 29, 135–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Fornari, L.F.; Lourenço, R.G.; de Oliveira, R.N.G.; dos Santos, D.L.A.; Menegatti, M.S.; da Fonseca, R.M.G.S. Domestic violence against women amidst the pandemic: Coping strategies disseminated by digital media. Rev. Bras. Enferm. 2021, 74 (Suppl. S1), e20200631. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gadd, D.; Corr, M.-L.; Fox, C.L.; Butler, I. This is Abuse… Or is it? Domestic abuse perpetrators’ responses to anti-domestic violence publicity. Crime Media Cult. 2014, 10, 3–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Devries, K.M.; Mak, J.Y.T.; García-Moreno, C.; Petzold, M.; Child, J.C.; Falder, G.; Lim, S.; Bacchus, L.J.; Engell, R.E.; Rosenfeld, L.; et al. The Global Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence against Women. Science 2013, 340, 1527–1528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wilcox, T.; Greenwood, M.; Pullen, A.; O’Leary Kelly, A.; Jones, D. Interfaces of domestic violence and organization: Gendered violence and inequality. Gend. Work. Organ. 2021, 28, 701–721. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Acocella, I. The focus groups in social research: Advantages and disadvantages. Qual. Quant. 2011, 46, 1125–1136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- British Psychological Society. Code of Ethics and Conduct; British Psychological Society: Leicester, UK, 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Braun, V.; Clarke, V. Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology. Qual. Res. Psychol. 2006, 3, 77–101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guest, G.; Macqueen, K.; Namey, E. Themes and Codes. In Applied Thematic Analysis; SAGE Publications, Inc.: Washington DC, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alhojailan, M.I. Thematic analysis: A critical review of its process and evaluation. West East J. Soc. Sci. 2012, 1, 39–47. [Google Scholar]
- Mojtahedi, D.; Webb, T.; Leadley, C.B.; Jones, M. Match officials and abuse: A systematic review. Eur. Sport Manag. Q. 2022, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nepomuceno, T.C.C.; de Carvalho, V.D.H.; Silva, L.C.E.; de Moura, J.A.; Costa, A.P.C.S. Exploring the Bedouin syndrome in the football fan culture: Addressing the hooliganism phenomena through networks of violent behavior. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 9711. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jacobs, A.J. Fighting fans: Football hooliganism as a world phenomenon. Contemp. Sociol. 2003, 32, 472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Willmott, D.; Ioannou, M. A Narrative Based Model of Differentiating Rioters. Howard J. Crime Justice 2017, 56, 105–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Debowska, A.; Boduszek, D.; Jones, A.; Willmott, D.; Sherretts, N. Gender-based violence-supportive cognitions in adolescent girls and boys: The function of violence exposure and victimization. J. Interpers. Violence 2021, 36, 1233–1255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharratt, K.; Mason, S.; Kirkman, G.; Willmott, D.; McDermott, D.; Timmins, S.; Wager, N. Childhood Abuse and Neglect, Exposure to Domestic Violence and Sibling Violence: Profiles and Associations with Sociodemographic Variables and Mental Health Indicators. J. Interpers. Violence 2023, 38, 1141–1162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Filkin, S.; Mojtahedi, D.; Willmott, D. Motivations for Adolescent Offending and Truancy from School: Retrospective Interviews with Adults recently released from a Custodial Prison Sentence in England. Heliyon 2022, 8, e09762. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sowersby, C.; Erskine-Shaw, M.; Willmott, D. Masochist or Murderer? A Discourse Analytic Study Exploring Social Constructions of Sexually Violent Male Perpetrators, Female Victims-Survivors and the Rough Sex Defence on Twitter. Front. Psychol. 2022, 13, 867991. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boduszek, D.; Debowska, A.; Trotman Jemmott, E.; Da Breo, H.; Willmott, D.; Sherretts, N.; Jones, A.D. Victimisation, Violence Perpetration, and Attitudes towards Violence among Boys and Girls from Barbados and Grenada; University of Huddersfield Press: Huddersfield, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krueger, R.A. Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research; Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Finch, H.; Lewis, J.; Turley, C. Focus groups. In Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers; Sage Publications: London, UK, 2003; Volume 2, pp. 211–242. [Google Scholar]
- Kitzinger, J. Qualitative Research: Introducing focus groups. BMJ 1995, 311, 299–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Lindsay, J.; Willmott, D.; Richardson, E. Football Culture and Domestic Violence: Dissecting the Link among a Focus Group of Non-Abusive Youth Football Fan’s. Youth 2023, 3, 1078-1100. https://doi.org/10.3390/youth3030069
Lindsay J, Willmott D, Richardson E. Football Culture and Domestic Violence: Dissecting the Link among a Focus Group of Non-Abusive Youth Football Fan’s. Youth. 2023; 3(3):1078-1100. https://doi.org/10.3390/youth3030069
Chicago/Turabian StyleLindsay, Jessica, Dominic Willmott, and Emma Richardson. 2023. "Football Culture and Domestic Violence: Dissecting the Link among a Focus Group of Non-Abusive Youth Football Fan’s" Youth 3, no. 3: 1078-1100. https://doi.org/10.3390/youth3030069
APA StyleLindsay, J., Willmott, D., & Richardson, E. (2023). Football Culture and Domestic Violence: Dissecting the Link among a Focus Group of Non-Abusive Youth Football Fan’s. Youth, 3(3), 1078-1100. https://doi.org/10.3390/youth3030069