High-School Athletes’ Knowledge, Attitudes, and Perceptions on Doping: The Cyprus Sport-School Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Purpose of the Study
- RQ1: What is the knowledge of high-school student athletes about doping in sports?
- RQ2: What are the attitudes and perceptions of high-school student athletes towards sports and doping?
- RQ3: Are there any statistically significant differences among high-school student athletes in their knowledge of doping issues based on their demographic characteristics (i.e., gender, nationality, engagement with team vs. individual sport, and grade level)?
- RQ4: Are there any statistically significant differences among high-school student athletes in their attitudes and perceptions towards sports and doping based on their demographic characteristics (i.e., gender, nationality, engagement with team vs. individual sport, and grade level)?
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Participants
3.2. Procedure
3.3. Questionnaire
3.4. Data Analysis
4. Results
4.1. High-School Student Athletes’ Knowledge about Doping in Sports
4.1.1. Prohibited List
4.1.2. Doping Controls
4.1.3. Anti-Doping Rule Violations and Related Consequences
4.2. High-School Student Athletes’ Attitudes and Perceptions towards Sports and Doping
4.2.1. Attitudes and Perceptions towards Sports
4.2.2. Attitudes and Perceptions towards Doping
4.3. Differences in High-School Student Athletes’ Knowledge on Doping Based on Their Demographic Data
4.4. Differences in High-School Student Athletes’ Attitudes and Perceptions towards Sports and Doping Based on Their Demographic Data
4.4.1. Differences in High-School Student Athletes’ Attitudes and Perceptions towards Sports
4.4.2. Differences in High-School Student Athletes’ Attitudes and Perceptions towards Doping
5. Discussion
5.1. High-School Athletes’ Knowledge about Anti-Doping
5.2. High-School Athletes’ Attitudes and Perceptions towards Sports and Doping
5.3. Differences in High-School Student Athletes’ Knowledge on Doping Based on Their Demographic Data
5.4. Differences in High-School Student Athletes’ Attitudes and Perceptions towards Sports and Doping Based on Their Demographic Data
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
- Part A:
- Select what applies for you.
- 1.
- Gender:
1. Female 2. Male 3. Prefer not to say - 2.
- Nationality
1. Cypriot 2. Greek 3. Other (specify): - 3.
- Age (in years):
- 14
- 15
- 16
- 17
- 18
- Other (specify)
- 4.
- School class (Lyceum-High school):
1. A grade level 2. B grade level 3. C grade level - 5.
- What sport are you involved in?
1. Tennis 7. Karate 13. Taekwondo 2. Weightlifting 8. Swimming 14. Judo 3. Gymnastics (gymnastics) 9. Volleyball 15. Dance 4. Gymnastics (rhythmic) 10. Cycling 16. Other (which one?) 5. Basketball 11. Soccer 6. Canoe 12. Track ................... - 6.
- How many days a week do you deal with your sport (training and/or competitions)?
1. 1–2 times 2. 3 times 3. 4 times 4. 5 times 5. 6 times 6. Everyday - 7.
- How many years have you been involved in your sport?
1. Less than 2 years 2. 6–8 years 3. 2–5 years 4. More than 8 years - 8.
- Are you a member of a sports club (in your sport)?
1. Yes 2. No - 9.
- In the last two years, have you participated in competitions for your sport?
1. Yes 2. No - If yes, at what level of competition?
1. Club matches 2. Provincial competitions 3. Pancyprian Competitions 4. International competitions - 10.
- Have you undergone doping control?
1. Yes 2. No
- Move on to Part B, on the next page.
- Part B:
- Circle what you think is right (you can choose more than one answer).
- 11.
- By which of the following criteria is it decided which substances are prohibited in sport?
1. They can cause harm to the health of the athlete. 2. May improve performance in sports. 3. It is against the athletic spirit. 4. They may conceal the athlete’s use of another banned substance. 5. All the above. 6. I do not know. - 12.
- The List of Banned Substances is reviewed by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).
1. Right 2. Wrong 3. I do not know. - 13.
- How often is the List of Prohibited Substances revised?
1. Every month 4. Every 5 years 2. Yearly 5. Every 10 years 3. Every 2 years 6. It always stays the same 7. I do not know. - 14.
- Each sport has its own List of Prohibited Substances.
1. Right 2. Wrong 3. I do not know. - 15.
- Which of the following are considered doping in sport?
1. Presence of a prohibited substance in an athlete’s sample. 2. The use of a prohibited substance by an athlete. 3. The refusal or avoidance to submit to sample collection. 4. Tampering with doping control. 5. Possession of a prohibited substance. 6. Trafficking of a prohibited substance (e.g., sale, marketing). 7. The administration of a prohibited substance to an athlete. 8. Violation of regulations on the availability of an athlete for being subject to a check (‘unsuccessful check’ and/or ‘non-reporting’). 9. All the above. 10. I do not know. - 16.
- Doping control can be done:
1. Only at the training ground. 2. Only at the venue of the competitions/games. 3. Anywhere. 4. I do not know. - 17.
- Doping control can be done:
1. Immediately after the end of a competition, merely. 2. Before the start of a competition, merely. 3. Whenever. 4. I do not know. - 18.
- Doping control is carried out:
1. After at least a week’s notice. 2. After a day’s notice. 3. No warning. 4. I do not know. - 19.
- Doping is not punishable when it is done off-season.
1. Right 2. Wrong 3. I do not know. - 20.
- Each athlete is solely responsible for any substance that enters in their own body.
1. Right 2. Wrong 3. I do not know. - 21.
- When an athlete is sick, s/he can arbitrarily use whatever substance s/he wants to get well.
1. Right 2. Wrong 3. I do not know. - 22.
- Which of the following substances are prohibited in sports?
1. Testosterone 8. Clenbuterol 2. Hormone 9. Caffeine 3. Ephedrine 10. Anti-inflammatory 4. Vitamin C 11. Marijuana (hashish) 5. Diuretics 12. Cocaine 6. Nicotine 13. Erythropoietin 7. Creatine 14. Proteins - 23.
- For which of the following reasons is doping prohibited?
1. It is a danger to the health of an athlete 2. Improves athletic performance in a fraudulent way (fraud) 3. It violates sports rules 4. It is against the spirit of sport 5. All the above 6. I do not know. - 24.
- What can be the consequences if an athlete is found “doped” in Cyprus?
1. Ineligibility from participating in sport, in any capacity 2. Forfeiture of any medals, points, and prizes 3. Fine 4. Imprisonment 5. All the above 6. I do not know.
- Move on to Part C on the next page.
- Part C:
- Circle what you think is right (you can choose more than one answers).
- 25.
- Have you been informed or attended any training in relation to anti-doping?
1. Yes 2. No - If so, by whom?
1. My trainer/coach 2. My parents 3. My doctor 4. The school 5. The Cyprus Anti-Doping Authority 6. The internet 7. Other (Specify: .................................................) - 26.
- Do you feel satisfied with your knowledge about anti-doping?
1. Yes 2. No - 27.
- Do you think there should be more anti-doping training/awareness?
1. Yes 2. No - 28.
- For each of the statements below, circle the number that best corresponds to what you believe. There are no right or wrong answers.
I totally disagree Disagree I slightly disagree I slightly agree I agree I totally agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Doping is necessary to be competitive. 1 2 3 4 5 6 2. Doping is not a problem for sport. 1 2 3 4 5 6 3. The statement that doping can even lead to death seems exaggerated to me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 4. The media should communicate more about anti-doping. 1 2 3 4 5 6 5. Athletes often lose time due to injuries and with doping can help to make up the lost time. 1 2 3 4 5 6 6. Only win matters and not how it is achieved. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7. Athletes feel pressured to use prohibited substances. 1 2 3 4 5 6 8. In competitive sports everyone uses prohibited substances. 1 2 3 4 5 6 9. Athletes have no alternative career choices, but sport. 1 2 3 4 5 6 10. Doping is an unavoidable part of the competitive sport. 1 2 3 4 5 6 11. In recreational sports, everyone is doing doping. 1 2 3 4 5 6 12. If doping was not prohibited, there would be more benefits for sports. 1 2 3 4 5 6 13. Athletes who have a good and healthy diet do not need any dietary supplement. 1 2 3 4 5 6 14. Doping is one of the most important problems facing sport today. 1 2 3 4 5 6 15. Stricter penalties should be imposed on athletes who do doping. 1 2 3 4 5 6 16. Doping is not cheating since everyone does it. 1 2 3 4 5 6 - 29.
- For each of the statements below, circle the number that best corresponds to what you believe. There are no right or wrong answers.
Not important at all Neutral Very important 1 2 3 4 5 - How important are the following to you in sports?
1. Win 1 2 3 4 5 2. Participation 1 2 3 4 5 3. Discipline 1 2 3 4 5 4. Respect 1 2 3 4 5 5. Positive impact on my health 1 2 3 4 5 6. Having fun 1 2 3 4 5 7. Performance 1 2 3 4 5 8. Teamwork 1 2 3 4 5 9. Challenging myself 1 2 3 4 5 10. Competition 1 2 3 4 5 11. Financial gains 1 2 3 4 5 12. Glory 1 2 3 4 5 13. Recognition 1 2 3 4 5 - 30.
- For each of the statements below, circle the number that best corresponds to what you believe. There are no right or wrong answers.
No serious at all Neutral Very serious 1 2 3 4 5 - How serious is each of the following problems for you when it comes to sports?
1. Inappropriate behavior of fans 1 2 3 4 5 2. Inappropriate behavior of a coach 1 2 3 4 5 3. Violence among competitors 1 2 3 4 5 4. Use of doping substances 1 2 3 4 5 5. Lack of fair play 1 2 3 4 5 6. Racism 1 2 3 4 5 7. Discrimination on the basis of sex 1 2 3 4 5 8. Focus on money 1 2 3 4 5 - 31.
- For each of the statements below, circle the number that best corresponds to what you believe. There are no right or wrong answers.
I totally disagree Disagree Neutral I agree I totally agree 1 2 3 4 5 1. Doping is unethical. 1 2 3 4 5 2. Doping can cause serious and/or permanent damage to the human body. 1 2 3 4 5 3. I accept individuals who are doing doping. 1 2 3 4 5 4. If I do doping for a short period of time, it is harmless. 1 2 3 4 5 5. With doping I will get faster to the desired performance results. 1 2 3 4 5 6. I would use doping if I knew that no one would ever discover it. 1 2 3 4 5 7. I would train more intensively instead of using prohibited substances and methods to improve my performance in my sport. 1 2 3 4 5 - 32.
- Would you break the rules by using prohibited substances to win a major medal or a cash prize, knowing that these substances cannot be detected and that, from their use, you will lose your life within the next five years?
1. Yes 2. No
- Thank you for your participation!
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Nationality | Province | Gender | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cypriot | 137 (83.5%) | Nicosia | 102 (62.2%) | Male | 106 (64.6%) |
Greek | 18 (11.0%) | Limassol | 62 (37.8%) | Female | 57 (34.8%) |
Other | 9 (5.5%) |
Mean | SD | Min | Max | |
---|---|---|---|---|
General Knowledge | 8.90 | 2.26 | 3.0 | 14.0 |
Doping Control | 4.10 | 1.83 | 0.0 | 8.0 |
Overall score | 13.00 | 3.31 | 4.0 | 22.0 |
Question | Items | Validity of the Item | Frequency of Answers (%) |
---|---|---|---|
16. Where may an athlete be asked to do doping control? | Only at the training area. | Incorrect | 1 (0.6) |
Only at the competition venue. | Incorrect | 42 (25.6) | |
Anywhere. | Correct | 97 (59.1) | |
I do not know. | - | 18 (11.0) | |
17. When may an athlete be asked to do doping control? | Only after the end of the competition. | Incorrect | 44 (26.8) |
Prior to the start of the competition. | Incorrect | 13 (7.9) | |
Anytime. | Correct | 89 (54.3) | |
I do not know. | - | 15 (9.1) |
Items | Mean | SD |
---|---|---|
Win | 4.48 | 0.059 |
Participation | 4.59 | 0.061 |
Discipline | 4.74 | 0.051 |
Respect | 4.78 | 0.044 |
Positive impact on my health | 4.80 | 0.046 |
Having fun | 4.39 | 0.073 |
Performance | 4.80 | 0.041 |
Teamwork | 4.61 | 0.064 |
Challenging myself | 4.41 | 0.070 |
Competition | 4.43 | 0.069 |
Financial gains | 3.17 | 0.093 |
Glory | 3.78 | 0.092 |
Recognition | 3.90 | 0.086 |
Items | Mean | SD |
---|---|---|
1. Inappropriate behavior of fans 1 | 3.87 | 0.100 |
2. Inappropriate behavior of a coach 1 | 4.21 | 0.095 |
3. Violence among competitors | 4.44 | 0.084 |
4. Use of doping substances | 4.62 | 0.074 |
5. Lack of fair play | 4.46 | 0.090 |
6. Racism | 4.49 | 0.088 |
7. Discrimination on the basis of sex | 4.34 | 0.090 |
8. Focus on money | 3.71 | 0.105 |
Statement | Mean | SD |
---|---|---|
1. Doping is necessary to be competitive. | 1.96 | 0.19 |
2. Doping is not a problem for sports. | 1.50 | 1.29 |
3. The statement that doping can even lead to death seems exaggerated to me. | 2.76 | 1.68 |
4. The media should communicate more about anti-doping. | 4.82 | 1.25 |
5. Athletes often lose time due to injuries and with doping can help to make up the lost time. | 3.06 | 1.68 |
6. Only win matters and not how it is achieved. | 1.89 | 1.46 |
7. Athletes feel pressured to use prohibited substances. | 3.65 | 1.46 |
8. In competitive sports, everyone uses prohibited substances. | 2.29 | 1.49 |
9. Athletes have no alternative career choices, but sport. | 2.32 | 1.21 |
10. Doping is an unavoidable part of the competitive sport. | 2.40 | 1.63 |
11. In recreational sports, everyone is doing doping. | 1.88 | 1.35 |
12. If doping was not prohibited, there would be more benefits for sports. | 2.37 | 1.67 |
13. Athletes who have a good and healthy diet do not need any dietary supplement. | 4.56 | 1.55 |
14. Doping is one of the most important problems that sports are facing today. | 4.59 | 1.49 |
15. Stricter penalties should be imposed on athletes who do doping. | 4.77 | 1.47 |
16. Doping is not cheating since everyone does it. | 1.58 | 1.06 |
Statement | Mean | SD |
---|---|---|
1. Doping is unethical. | 4.30 | 1.13 |
2. Doping can cause serious and/or permanent damage to the human body. | 4.28 | 1.02 |
3. I accept individuals who are doing doping. | 2.68 | 1.16 |
4. If I do doping for a short period of time, it is harmless. | 2.29 | 1.10 |
5. With doping I will get faster to the desired performance results. | 2.68 | 1.28 |
6. I would use doping if I knew that no one would ever discover it. | 1.84 | 1.20 |
7. I would train more intensively instead of using prohibited substances and methods to improve my performance in my sport. | 4.61 | 0.87 |
Nationality | n | Mean | SD | H |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cypriot | 137 | 13.04 | 3.23 | 12.884 ** |
Greek | 18 | 11.28 | 2.64 | |
Other | 9 | 15.83 | 3.89 |
High-School Grade Level | n | Mean | SD | H |
---|---|---|---|---|
1st grade | 57 | 12.26 | 3.32 | 13.411 ** |
2nd grade | 53 | 12.45 | 12.45 | |
3rd grade | 51 | 14.49 | 2.99 |
Items | Male Student Athletes (n = 106) | Female Student Athletes (n = 57) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean Rank | Mean | SD | Mean Rank | U | |
1. Inappropriate behavior of fans | 3.66 | 1.37 | 75.32 | 4.26 | 0.99 | 94.42 | 3729.0 ** |
2. Inappropriate behavior of a coach | 4.00 | 1.35 | 75.36 | 4.61 | 0.77 | 94.35 | 3725.0 ** |
3. Violence among competitors | 4.26 | 1.20 | 74.70 | 4.79 | 0.64 | 94.03 | 3706.5 ** |
4. Use of doping substances | 4.57 | 1.01 | 4.75 | 0.76 | |||
5. Lack of fair play | 4.35 | 1.28 | 79.79 | 4.70 | 0.84 | 86.11 | 3255.5 ns |
6. Racism | 4.36 | 1.25 | 78.88 | 4.72 | 0.77 | 87.80 | 3351.5 ns |
7. Discrimination on the basis of sex | 4.18 | 1.26 | 78.62 | 4.68 | 0.80 | 88.28 | 3379.0 ** |
8. Focus on money | 2.55 | 1.36 | 76.08 | 4.02 | 1.26 | 93.02 | 3649.0 * |
Items | Team Sports Athletes (n = 72) | Individual Sports Athletes (n = 92) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean Rank | Mean | SD | Mean Rank | U | |
1. Inappropriate behavior of fans | 3.58 | 1.30 | 71.51 | 4.10 | 1.22 | 91.10 | 4103.5 ** |
2. Inappropriate behavior of a coach | 4.01 | 1.35 | 76.66 | 4.37 | 1.06 | 97.07 | 3732.5 ns |
3. Violence among competitors | 4.24 | 1.10 | 71.84 | 4.59 | 1.02 | 90.04 | 4007.5 ** |
4. Use of doping substances | 4.54 | 0.96 | 77.13 | 4.68 | 0.92 | 96.71 | 3699.0 ns |
5. Lack of fair play | 4.46 | 1.10 | 80.87 | 4.47 | 1.20 | 83.78 | 3429.5 ns |
6. Racism | 4.58 | 0.96 | 83.56 | 4.41 | 1.23 | 81.67 | 3235.5 ns |
7. Discrimination on the basis of sex | 4.37 | 1.13 | 83.02 | 4.32 | 1.18 | 82.09 | 3274.5 ns |
8. Focus on money | 3.77 | 1.24 | 83.18 | 3.65 | 1.42 | 81.09 | 3182.0 ns |
Items | Male Student Athletes (n = 106) | Female Student Athletes (n = 57) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean Rank | Mean | SD | Mean Rank | U | |
Question 28 total score | 2.32 | 0.65 | 93.19 | 1.92 | 0.40 | 61.18 | 1834.5 *** |
Question 31 total score | 2.21 | 0.84 | 89.25 | 1.87 | 0.58 | 68.52 | 2252.5 ** |
Items | Team Sports Athletes (n = 72) | Individual Sports Athletes (n = 92) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | Mean rank | Mean | SD | Mean rank | U | |
Question 28 total score | 2.24 | 0.061 | 87.64 | 2.15 | 0.061 | 78.48 | 2942.0 ns |
Question 31 total score | 2.23 | 0.082 | 90.22 | 1.99 | 0.072 | 75.76 | 2684.0 * |
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Tsivitanidou, O.; Christodoulides, E.; Petrou, M. High-School Athletes’ Knowledge, Attitudes, and Perceptions on Doping: The Cyprus Sport-School Study. Youth 2023, 3, 596-622. https://doi.org/10.3390/youth3020040
Tsivitanidou O, Christodoulides E, Petrou M. High-School Athletes’ Knowledge, Attitudes, and Perceptions on Doping: The Cyprus Sport-School Study. Youth. 2023; 3(2):596-622. https://doi.org/10.3390/youth3020040
Chicago/Turabian StyleTsivitanidou, Olia, Efstathios Christodoulides, and Michael Petrou. 2023. "High-School Athletes’ Knowledge, Attitudes, and Perceptions on Doping: The Cyprus Sport-School Study" Youth 3, no. 2: 596-622. https://doi.org/10.3390/youth3020040
APA StyleTsivitanidou, O., Christodoulides, E., & Petrou, M. (2023). High-School Athletes’ Knowledge, Attitudes, and Perceptions on Doping: The Cyprus Sport-School Study. Youth, 3(2), 596-622. https://doi.org/10.3390/youth3020040