Metabolomics Approach to Reveal the Effects of Ocean Acidification on the Toxicity of Harmful Microalgae: A Review of the Literature
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Algal Toxins
2.1. Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
2.2. Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning
2.3. Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
2.4. Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning
2.5. Azaspiracid Shellfish Poisoning
3. Ocean Acidification
3.1. Effects of OA on the Toxicity of Microalgae
3.1.1. STXs-Producing Microalgae
3.1.2. DA-Producing Microalgae
3.1.3. PbTx-Producing Microalgae
3.2. OA May Affect the Central Carbon Metabolism of Toxic Microalgae
4. Future Research Directions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Algal Species (Strains) | OA Modeling Method | Experimental Parameters a | Significant Outcomes b | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control | High pCO2 Treatment | ||||
STXs-Producing Microalgae | |||||
Alexandrium fundyense (NBP8) isolated from Northport Bay | Laboratory culture CO2 gas bubbling | Experiment No. 1 pH: 8.085 ± 0.009 AT: 1824 ± 87 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 41 ± 2 Pa DIC: 1600 ± 80 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 15 days | Experiment No. 1 pH: 7.629 ± 0.031 AT: 1678 ± 123 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 122 ± 6 Pa DIC: 1606 ± 116 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 15 days | Experiment No. 1 Growth rate increased * | [97] |
Experiment No. 2 pH: 8.068 ± 0.013 AT: 1858 ± 104 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 44 ± 4 Pa DIC: 1639 ± 100 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 27 days | Experiment No. 2 pH: 7.741 ± 0.007 AT: 1975 ± 128 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 110 ± 7 Pa DIC: 1868 ± 125 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 27 days | Experiment No. 2 Total cellular toxicity increased * GTX1/4 increased * | [97] | ||
Experiment No. 3 pH: 8.075 ± 0.057 AT: 1994 ± 355 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 46 ± 2 Pa DIC: 1790 ± 329 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 15 days | Experiment No. 3 pH: 7.545 ± 0.034 AT: 1966 ± 231 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 177 ± 9 Pa DIC: 1941 ± 243 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 15 days | Experiment No. 3 Growth rate increased * | [97] | ||
Experiment No. 4 pH: 8.096 ± 0.032 AT: 2122 ± 123 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 47 ± 2 Pa DIC: 1885 ± 102 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 12 days | Experiment No. 4 pH: 7.592 ± 0.022 AT: 1977 ± 240 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 162 ± 12 Pa DIC: 1977 ± 240 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 12 days | Experiment No. 4 Growth rate increased * Total cellular toxicity increased * GTX1/4 increased * | [97] | ||
Alexandrium fundyense (CCMP2304) isolated from the Bay of Fundy | Experiment No. 5 pH: 8.118 ± 0.008 AT: 2167 ± 53 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 45 ± 1 Pa DIC: 1912 ± 44 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 24 days | Experiment No. 5 pH: 7.873 ± 0.033 AT: 2186 ± 91 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 87 ± 4 Pa DIC: 2033 ± 71 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 24 days | Experiment No. 5 Growth rate: increased * | [97] | |
Experiment No. 6 pH: 8.041 ± 0.012 AT: 1729 ± 56 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 44 ± 1 Pa DIC: 1539 ± 49 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 12 days | Experiment No. 6 pH: 7.547 ± 0.028 AT: 1889 ± 90 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 169 ± 4 Pa DIC: 1845 ± 84 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 12 days | Experiment No. 6 Growth rate increased * | [97] | ||
Experiment No. 7 pH: 8.086 ± 0.048 AT: 2121 ± 213 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 48 ± 3 Pa DIC: 1888 ± 183 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 12 days | Experiment No. 7 pH: 7.556 ± 0.038 AT: 2184 ± 167 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 191 ± 4 Pa DIC: 2138 ± 157 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 12 days | Experiment No. 7 Growth rate increased * | [97] | ||
Alexandrium minutum (AM-1) isolated from the South China Sea | Laboratory culture CO2 gas bubbling | 400 ppm CO2 treatment Length of experiment: 37 days | 800 ppm CO2 treatment Length of experiment: 37 days | 400 vs. 800 ppm CO2 Total cellular toxicity increased ** | [98] |
400 ppm CO2 treatment Length of experiment: 37 days | 1200 ppm CO2 treatment Length of experiment: 37 days | 400 vs. 1200 ppm CO2 Total cellular toxicity increased ** | [98] | ||
Alexandrium catenella (A-11c) isolated from Jalama Beach | Laboratory culture CO2 gas bubbling | 380 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 8.169 Calculated pCO2: 285 µatm DIC: 1957 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 7 days | 750 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 7.925 Calculated pCO2: 571 µatm DIC: 2103 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 7 days | 380 vs. 750 µatm CO2 Growth rate increased *** Total cellular toxicity increased *** | [99] |
Alexandrium ostenfeldii (AON13) isolated from Ouwerkerkse Kreek | Laboratory culture CO2 gas bubbling prior to cell inoculation c | 400 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 8.23 ± 0.02 Calculated pCO2: 213 ± 11 µatm DIC: 1188 ± 41 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 14 days | 1000 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 7.82 ± 0.01 Calculated pCO2: 527 ± 30 µatm DIC: 1168 ± 56 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 14 days | 400 vs. 1000 µatm CO2 STX increased * | [100] |
Alexandrium ostenfeldii (AON15) isolated from Ouwerkerkse Kreek | 400 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 8.07 ± 0.07 Calculated pCO2: 357 ± 36 µatm DIC: 1120 ± 21 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 14 days | 1000 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 7.75 ± 0.08 Calculated pCO2: 676 ± 55 µatm DIC: 1117 ± 10 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 14 days | 400 vs. 1000 µatm CO2 Growth rate increased ** Total cellular toxicity decreased *** GTX increased * | [100] | |
Alexandrium ostenfeldii (AON5.26) isolated from Ouwerkerkse Kreek | 400 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 8.17 ± 0.05 Calculated pCO2: 286 ± 13 µatm DIC: 1085 ± 15 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 14 days | 1000 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 7.86 ± 0.03 Calculated pCO2: 479 ± 18 µatm DIC: 1126 ± 2 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 14 days | Growth rate increased *** GTX increased *** STX and C1/2 decreased *** | [100] | |
Alexandrium tamarense (Alex5) | Laboratory culture CO2 gas bubbling | 380 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 8.27 ± 0.07 AT: 2439 ± 1 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 315 ± 57 µatm DIC: 2117 ± 41 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 8 days | 800 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 7.97 ± 0.10 AT: 2434 ± 2 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 706 ± 154 µatm DIC: 2245 ± 37 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 8 days | 380 vs. 800 µatm CO2 Total cellular toxicity decreased * Non-sulfated STX analogues decreased * Di-sulfated STX analogues increased * | [101] |
380 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 8.27 ± 0.07 AT: 2439 ± 1 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 315 ± 57 µatm DIC: 2117 ± 41 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 8 days | 1200 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 7.83 ± 0.12 AT: 2418 ± 1 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 995 ± 248 µatm DIC: 2283 ± 34 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 8 days | 380 vs. 1200 µatm CO2 Total cellular toxicity decreased * Non-sulfated STX analogues decreased * Mono-sulfated STX analogues increased * Di-sulfated STX analogues increased * | [101] | ||
Alexandrium tamarense (Alex2) | 380 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 8.27 ± 0.02 AT: 2384 ± 4 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 305 ± 20 µatm DIC: 2111 ± 14 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 8 days | 800 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 7.90 ± 0.03 AT: 2390 ± 6 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 810 ± 60 µatm DIC: 2229 ± 33 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 8 days | 380 vs. 800 µatm CO2 No significant changes in growth rate, total cellular toxicity, and toxin profile | [101] | |
380 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 8.27 ± 0.02 AT: 2384 ± 4 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 305 ± 20 µatm DIC: 2111 ± 14 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 8 days | 1200 µatm CO2 treatment pH: 7.75 ± 0.04 AT: 2386 ± 9 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 1167 ± 112 µatm DIC: 2279 ± 14 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: 8 days | 380 vs. 1200 µatm CO2 No significant changes in growth rate, total cellular toxicity, and toxin profile | [101] | ||
DA-producing microalgae | |||||
Pseudo-nitzschia multiseries (CCMP2708) isolated from Eastern Canada | Laboratory culture CO2 gas bubbling | 22 Pa CO2 treatment pH: 8.40 ± 0.03 Calculated pCO2: 22 ± 2 Pa DIC: 1970 ± 4 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: around 4 to 6 weeks | 41 Pa CO2 treatment pH: 8.19 ± 0.02 Calculated pCO2: 40 ± 3 Pa DIC: 2066 ± 11 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: around 4 to 6 weeks | 22 vs. 41 Pa CO2 Growth rate increased *** Carbon fixation rate increased ** | [102] |
22 Pa CO2 treatment pH: 8.40 ± 0.03 Calculated pCO2: 22 ± 2 Pa DIC: 1970 ± 4 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: around 4 to 6 weeks | 74 Pa CO2 treatment pH: 7.96 ± 0.01 Calculated pCO2: 73 ± 1 Pa DIC: 2177 ± 6 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: around 4 to 6 weeks | 22 vs. 74 Pa CO2 Growth rate increased *** Carbon fixation rate increased *** Cellular DA content increased *** | [102] | ||
41 Pa CO2 treatment pH: 8.19 ± 0.02 Calculated pCO2: 40 ± 3 Pa DIC: 2066 ± 11 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: around 4 to 6 weeks | 74 Pa CO2 treatment pH: 7.96 ± 0.01 Calculated pCO2: 73 ± 1 Pa DIC: 2177 ± 6 μmol L−1 Length of experiment: around 4 to 6 weeks | 41 vs. 74 Pa CO2 Growth rate increased *** Cellular DA content increased ** | [102] | ||
Pseudo-nitzschia fraudulenta isolated from Ventura County | Laboratory culture CO2 gas bubbling | 200 ppm CO2 treatment pH: 8.43 Calculated pCO2: 198 ppm DIC: 1965 μmol L−1 | 360 ppm CO2 treatment pH: 8.23 Calculated pCO2: 357 ppm DIC: 2107 μmol L−1 | 200 vs. 360 ppm CO2 Growth rate increased *** Carbon fixation rate increased | [103] |
200 ppm CO2 treatment pH: 8.43 Calculated pCO2: 198 ppm DIC: 1965 μmol L−1 | 765 ppm CO2 treatment pH: 7.95 Calculated pCO2: 764 ppm DIC: 2249 μmol L−1 | 200 vs. 765 ppm CO2 Growth rate increased *** Carbon fixation rate increased | [103] | ||
Pseudo-nitzschia australis (HAB 200) isolated from northern Monterey Bay | Laboratory culture CO2 gas bubbling | pH 8.1 treatment Length of experiment: 7 days Exponential growth phase pH: 8.14 ± 0.01 AT: 2232 ± 9 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 406 ± 8 µatm DIC: 2032 ± 11 μmol L−1 Stationary growth phase pH: 8.14 ± 0.01 AT: 2239 ± 25 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 410 ± 2 µatm DIC: 2052 ± 21 μmol L−1 | pH 8.0 treatment Length of experiment: 8 days Exponential growth phase pH: 8.03 ± 0.01 AT: 2248 ± 25 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 550 ± 8 µatm DIC: 2093 ± 21 μmol L−1 Stationary growth phase pH: 8.04 ± 0.01 AT: 2254 ± 14 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 537 ± 19 µatm DIC: 2107 ± 17 μmol L−1 | pH 8.1 vs. pH 8.0 No significant response | [104] |
pH 8.1 treatment Length of experiment: 7 days Exponential growth phase pH: 8.14 ± 0.01 AT: 2232 ± 9 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 406 ± 8 µatm DIC: 2032 ± 11 μmol L−1 Stationary growth phase pH: 8.14 ± 0.01 AT: 2239 ± 25 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 410 ± 2 µatm DIC: 2052 ± 21 μmol L−1 | pH 7.9 treatment Length of experiment: 8 days Exponential growth phase pH: 7.93 ± 0.02 AT: 2255 ± 20 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 719 ± 34 µatm DIC: 2136 ± 25 μmol L−1 Stationary growth phase pH: 7.93 ± 0.02 AT: 2279 ± 14 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 732 ± 28 µatm DIC: 2175 ± 13 μmol L−1 | pH 8.1 vs. pH 7.9 Maximum carbon fixation rate increased ** | [104] | ||
pH 8.0 treatment Length of experiment: 8 days Exponential growth phase pH: 8.03 ± 0.01 AT: 2248 ± 25 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 550 ± 8 µatm DIC: 2093 ± 21 μmol L−1 Stationary growth phase pH: 8.04 ± 0.01 AT: 2254 ± 14 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 537 ± 19 µatm DIC: 2107 ± 17 μmol L−1 | pH 7.9 treatment Length of experiment: 8 days Exponential growth phase pH: 7.93 ± 0.02 AT: 2255 ± 20 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 719 ± 34 µatm DIC: 2136 ± 25 μmol L−1 Stationary growth phase pH: 7.93 ± 0.02 AT: 2279 ± 14 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 732 ± 28 µatm DIC: 2175 ± 13 μmol L−1 | pH 8.0 vs. pH 7.9 Maximum carbon fixation rate increased * | [104] | ||
pH 8.1 treatment Length of experiment: 7 days Exponential growth phase pH: 8.14 ± 0.01 AT: 2232 ± 9 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 406 ± 8 µatm DIC: 2032 ± 11 μmol L−1 Stationary growth phase pH: 8.14 ± 0.01 AT: 2239 ± 25 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 410 ± 2 µatm DIC: 2052 ± 21 μmol L−1 | pH 7.8 treatment Length of experiment: 9 days Exponential growth phase pH: 7.81 ± 0.03 AT: 2292 ± 3 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 980 ± 64 µatm DIC: 2213 ± 11 μmol L−1 Stationary growth phase pH: 7.84 ± 0.01 AT: 2348 ± 17 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 929 ± 12 µatm DIC: 2271 ± 16 μmol L−1 | pH 8.1 vs. pH 7.8 Growth rate decreased **** Maximum carbon fixation rate increased * | [104] | ||
pH 8.0 treatment Length of experiment: 8 days Exponential growth phase pH: 8.03 ± 0.01 AT: 2248 ± 25 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 550 ± 8 µatm DIC: 2093 ± 21 μmol L−1 Stationary growth phase pH: 8.04 ± 0.01 AT: 2254 ± 14 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 537 ± 19 µatm DIC: 2107 ± 17 μmol L−1 | pH 7.8 treatment Length of experiment: 9 days Exponential growth phase pH: 7.81 ± 0.03 AT: 2292 ± 3 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 980 ± 64 µatm DIC: 2213 ± 11 μmol L−1 Stationary growth phase pH: 7.84 ± 0.01 AT: 2348 ± 17 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 929 ± 12 µatm DIC: 2271 ± 16 μmol L−1 | pH 8.0 vs. pH 7.8 Growth rate decreased **** Maximum carbon fixation rate increased * | [104] | ||
pH 7.9 treatment Length of experiment: 8 days Exponential growth phase pH: 7.93 ± 0.02 AT: 2255 ± 20 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 719 ± 34 µatm DIC: 2136 ± 25 μmol L−1 Stationary growth phase pH: 7.93 ± 0.02 AT: 2279 ± 14 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 732 ± 28 µatm DIC: 2175 ± 13 μmol L−1 | pH 7.8 treatment Length of experiment: 9 days Exponential growth phase pH: 7.81 ± 0.03 AT: 2292 ± 3 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 980 ± 64 µatm DIC: 2213 ± 11 μmol L−1 Stationary growth phase pH: 7.84 ± 0.01 AT: 2348 ± 17 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 929 ± 12 µatm DIC: 2271 ± 16 μmol L−1 | pH 7.9 vs. pH 7.8 Growth rate Decreased **** | [104] | ||
Pseudo-nitzschia spp. in Gullmar Fjord | Mesocosm, addition of CO2-saturated seawater | 380 µatm CO2 treatment Length of experiment: 111 days | 1000 µatm CO2 treatment Calculated pCO2: 760 ± 175 µatm Length of experiment: 111 days | 380 vs. 1000 µatm CO2 Cellular DA content increased * | [105] |
PbTx-producing microalgae | |||||
Karenia brevis (CCFWC-126) isolated from the Gulf of Mexico | Laboratory culture CO2 gas bubbling | 150 µatm CO2 treatment Before inoculation pH: 8.51 ± 0.04 AT: 2320 ± 3 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 118.9 ± 0.1 µatm DIC: 1679 ± 2 μmol L−1 Mid exponential phase pH: 8.63 ± 0.05 AT: 2428 ± 64 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 102.9 ± 16.8 µatm DIC: 1714 ± 4 μmol L−1 | 400 µatm CO2 treatment Before inoculation pH: 8.12 ± 0.02 AT: 2348 ± 18 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 446.6 ± 31.0 µatm DIC: 2008 μmol L−1 Mid exponential phase pH: 8.22 ± 0.03 AT: 2376 ± 14 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 355.6 ± 30.4 µatm DIC: 1982 ± 26 μmol L−1 | 150 vs. 400 µatm CO2 No significant response | [106] |
150 µatm CO2 treatment Before inoculation pH: 8.51 ± 0.04 AT: 2320 ± 3 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 118.9 ± 0.1 µatm DIC: 1679 ± 2 μmol L−1 Mid exponential phase pH: 8.63 ± 0.05 AT: 2428 ± 64 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 102.9 ± 16.8 µatm DIC: 1714 ± 4 μmol L−1 | 780 µatm CO2 treatment Before inoculation pH: 7.89 ± 0.01 AT: 2309 ± 1 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 812.7 ± 0.5 µatm DIC: 2089 ± 1 μmol L−1 Mid exponential phase pH: 7.95 ± 0.04 AT: 2342 ± 19 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 753.4 ± 78.8 µatm DIC: 2103 ± 4 μmol L−1 | 150 vs. 780 µatm CO2 No significant response | [106] | ||
400 µatm CO2 treatment Before inoculation pH: 8.12 ± 0.02 AT: 2348 ± 18 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 446.6 ± 31.0 µatm DIC: 2008 μmol L−1 Mid exponential phase pH: 8.22 ± 0.03 AT: 2376 ± 14 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 355.6 ± 30.4 µatm DIC: 1982 ± 26 μmol L−1 | 780 µatm CO2 treatment Before inoculation pH: 7.89 ± 0.01 AT: 2309 ± 1 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 812.7 ± 0.5 µatm DIC: 2089 ± 1 μmol L−1 Mid exponential phase pH: 7.95 ± 0.04 AT: 2342 ± 19 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 753.4 ± 78.8 µatm DIC: 2103 ± 4 μmol L−1 | 400 vs. 780 µatm CO2 No significant response | [106] | ||
Karenia brevis (Wilson) isolated from John’s Pass | Laboratory culture CO2 gas bubbling prior to cell inoculation2 | 250 ppm CO2 treatment Length of experiment: 9 days Before inoculation Calculated pCO2: 241.2 µatm DIC: 1727.3 ± 33 μmol L−1 At the beginning of the experiment AT: 2082.8 ± 34.3 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 134.2 µatm At the end of the experiment AT: 2198.6 ± 62.0 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 80.5 µatm DIC: 1562.6 ± 14.5 μmol L−1 | 350 ppm CO2 treatment Length of experiment: 9 days Before inoculation Calculated pCO2: 318.4 µatm DIC: 1733.9 ± 163.7 μmol L−1 At the beginning of the experiment AT: 2021.3 ± 33.6 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 115.6 µatm At the end of the experiment AT: 2250.5 ± 0.6 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 55.1 µatm DIC: 1509.9 ± 259.7 μmol L−1 | No significant response | [107] |
250 ppm CO2 treatment Length of experiment: 9 days Before inoculation Calculated pCO2: 241.2 µatm DIC: 1727.3 ± 33 μmol L−1 At the beginning of the experiment AT: 2082.8 ± 34.3 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 134.2 µatm At the end of the experiment AT: 2198.6 ± 62.0 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 80.5 µatm DIC: 1562.6 ± 14.5 μmol L−1 | 1000 ppm CO2 treatment Length of experiment: 9 days Before inoculation Calculated pCO2: 1131.9 µatm DIC: 1986 ± 17.2 μmol L−1 At the beginning of the experiment AT: 2076.6 ± 6 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 438.9 µatm At the end of the experiment AT: 2224.7 ± 10.7 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 166.1 µatm DIC: 1750.8 ± 21.1 μmol L−1 | 250 vs. 1000 ppm CO2 Growth rate increased *** | [107] | ||
350 ppm CO2 treatment Length of experiment: 9 days Before inoculation Calculated pCO2: 318.4 µatm DIC: 1733.9 ± 163.7 μmol L−1 At the beginning of the experiment AT: 2021.3 ± 33.6 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 115.6 µatm At the end of the experiment AT: 2250.5 ± 0.6 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 55.1 µatm DIC: 1509.9 ± 259.7 μmol L−1 | 1000 ppm CO2 treatment Length of experiment: 9 days Before inoculation Calculated pCO2: 1131.9 µatm DIC: 1986 ± 17.2 μmol L−1 At the beginning of the experiment AT: 2076.6 ± 6 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 438.9 µatm At the end of the experiment AT: 2224.7 ± 10.7 μmol L−1 Calculated pCO2: 166.1 µatm DIC: 1750.8 ± 21.1 μmol L−1 | 350 vs. 1000 ppm CO2 Growth rate increased *** | [107] | ||
Karenia brevis (SP1) isolated from South Padre Island | 300 ppm CO2 treatment Length of experiment: 9 days Before inoculation Calculated pCO2: 299 ± 157.8 µatm At the beginning of the experiment Calculated pCO2: 211.8 ± 32 µatm At the end of the experiment Calculated pCO2: 99 ± 32.7 µatm | 1000 ppm CO2 treatment Length of experiment: 9 days Before inoculation Calculated pCO2: 1084 ± 14.1 µatm At the beginning of the experiment Calculated pCO2: 398.6 ± 3.4 µatm At the end of the experiment Calculated pCO2: 219 ± 11.1 µatm | 300 vs. 1000 ppm CO2 Growth rate increased | [107] |
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Tsui, T.-K.V.; Kong, H.-K. Metabolomics Approach to Reveal the Effects of Ocean Acidification on the Toxicity of Harmful Microalgae: A Review of the Literature. AppliedChem 2023, 3, 169-195. https://doi.org/10.3390/appliedchem3010012
Tsui T-KV, Kong H-K. Metabolomics Approach to Reveal the Effects of Ocean Acidification on the Toxicity of Harmful Microalgae: A Review of the Literature. AppliedChem. 2023; 3(1):169-195. https://doi.org/10.3390/appliedchem3010012
Chicago/Turabian StyleTsui, Tsz-Ki Victoria, and Hang-Kin Kong. 2023. "Metabolomics Approach to Reveal the Effects of Ocean Acidification on the Toxicity of Harmful Microalgae: A Review of the Literature" AppliedChem 3, no. 1: 169-195. https://doi.org/10.3390/appliedchem3010012