Enhancing Intergenerational Connections: Exploring the Benefits for Older Adults and College Students in a Telephonic Reassurance Program

Abstract

Loneliness is well documented as a major, yet preventable, risk factor for well-being among older adults that was exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Nearly half of some countries’ older population experience loneliness, which significantly increases risks for dementia, heart disease, stroke, depression, anxiety, hospitalization, and even hastened death. Utilizing socioemotional selectivity theory, the current study addresses. the inverse relationship between aging and social outlet availability by providing empirical data on the benefits of intergenerational programming. Data from adult–college student dyads who participated in a telephone reassurance program focused on reminiscence guiding were analyzed to determine outcomes of participation. Qualitative analyses revealed the emergence of themes surrounding familial/friendship bonds and self-discovery among adult participants and a rejuvenated appreciation for the little things in life as well as a sense of purpose from meaningful contributions among college student participants. Results are discussed in terms of continued growth and development during late adulthood and professional and personal growth among students. The psychologically and emotionally meaningful nature of quality intergenerational programs provides a platform for the formation of unique relationships to offset fractured social outlets during later life, providing protections against loneliness and work to establish unique relationships between disparate groups who otherwise may never have crossed paths.

1. Introduction

Loneliness is recognized as a major risk to health and well-being as it is associated with a number of detrimental mental and physical health outcomes. Drawing attention to the prevalence of loneliness, this paper underscores the need for effective interventions targeting loneliness, particularly among those with increased susceptibilities. Utilizing socioemotional selectivity theory, we bring attention to the inverse relationship between social relationships and age, thus highlighting the need for meaningful social interactions among older adults. Through a comprehensive literature review, this paper explores intergenerational programming as a promising avenue for addressing loneliness among vulnerable older adults. The current study extends the extant literature by investigating feedback from participants in an inclusive intergenerational telephone reassurance program that utilized guided reminiscing and life review techniques as the source of intergenerational conversations.

1.1. Loneliness Among Adults

Loneliness is not a new phenomenon, but the COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the impact that loneliness has on health and well-being across the lifespan, especially among vulnerable and already isolated older adults. Loneliness is recognized as a major, yet preventable, risk factor for mental health and well-being alongside depression, addiction, and thoughts of suicide, as well as physical ailments. Research has established the pervasiveness of loneliness among older people and that health outcomes from chronic loneliness can be as deadly as smoking up to 15 cigarettes daily [1], and evidence has suggested that loneliness can generate upwards of seven billion dollars in annual costs [2]. Recent trends reveal that among older adults, social isolation or loneliness was associated with an approximate 50% increased risk for dementia, a 29% increased risk for heart disease, a 32% increased risk for stroke, and higher rates of depression, anxiety, and suicide [3]. Among those with elevated vulnerabilities, loneliness can increase risks for hospitalization by 68%, emergency department visits by 57%, and even hasten death [3].

These alarming findings emphasize the profound impact that loneliness has on both mental and physical health, deeming it as not just a matter of personal well-being but a significant public health concern. Specifically, recent nationally representative data found that 24% of older Americans identified as socially isolated and that loneliness has been a longstanding issue, with 43% of those 60 and older reporting feelings of loneliness as cited in [4]. The findings above underscore the need for interventions aimed at combating loneliness and social isolation, particularly among older adults, and treating loneliness from a healthcare lens.

Factors contributing to loneliness are diverse and intricate, with several underlying causes, each unique to an individual’s personal life journey. This makes it incredibly challenging to consistently identify the root causes that lead to loneliness among older adults; however, it is critical to research the risk factors that could be contributing to this pervasive issue. Several studies (see [5]) in the early to mid-2000s identified a multitude of key vulnerability factors for loneliness among older adults. These included elements such as marital status, living situation, lack of involvement in the community and/or church life, poor current health, and the death of loved ones. While these factors continue to increase risks for loneliness, contemporary trends exacerbate the prevalence. These involve changing demographic familial landscapes and the ability to maintain proximity, holistic health considerations, and socio-environmental influences such as advancements in and access to technology [5]. Regarding such variations in loneliness, it is evident that research must continuously evolve in order to accurately capture contemporary contributors leading to loneliness among older adults.

1.2. Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

One consistent manner in which social capital has been impacted is through normative developmental patterns. Drawing from socioemotional selectivity theory [6], we understand the inverse relationship between chronological age and social convoy size (i.e., the quantity of individuals within a person’s social networks), leaving many individuals with fewer social outlets later in life. As people age, their motivations and goals within surrounding social structures change as a result of their perceived time horizon. As people perceive fewer years left to live, they tend to prioritize emotionally meaningful experiences in order to maximize the internal benefits that accompany fulfilling interpersonal relationships. In doing so, older adults become more selective over who comprises the innermost portions of their social convoy as they reserve this space for those who elicit positive affect and socio-emotionally gratifying experiences. Although interpersonal relationships often experience an increase in quality interactions, we do see fewer individuals within an older person’s social network, leaving susceptibilities for loneliness. Building meaningful relationships with others plays a crucial role in enhancing one’s overall well-being and happiness, especially during later years in life.

Considering the ways in which social convoys change with normative aging processes, the development, accessibility, and sustainability of programs that enhance social resources for older adults is critically important, knowing that meaningful socialization is important for continued well-being in later life [7]. Moreover, social drivers, including social connection, have been shown to impact up to 80% of a person’s overall health and well-being [8]. Intergenerational programming has shown promise in restoring social connections that may be lost with aging [9,10]. Such programming involves social leisure activities and interactions between individuals from different age groups, typically younger and older generations. Intergenerational programming provides a platform conducive to the formation of meaningful friendships between disparate groups who likely would have never interacted [9,10].

1.3. Literature Review

Although social isolation and loneliness touch the lives of many individuals, research has consistently pinpointed negative health outcomes for older adults, putting them at considerable risks. Considering the contemporary changes set into motion by COVID-19, there has been a surge of telehealth and telemedicine availability. In regard to telemedicine, particularly telephone-based interventions, research has found that telemedicine plays a crucial role in reducing barriers to accessing care, especially for individuals in rural areas, and can help reduce socioeconomic disparities in healthcare access [11,12]. Authors of the current project conducted a comprehensive review of the literature focusing on studies that reviewed the effectiveness of telephonic social initiatives targeting loneliness among older adults. Nine studies focused on the mental health and well-being outcomes among lonely older adults [13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21]. Key findings from these studies revealed that telephone reassurance interventions showed promise in reducing loneliness among older adults and improving mental well-being, such as reducing depression and enhancing feelings of self-worth and competence. Similarly, ten studies found that telephone reassurance programs and peer support interventions, such as befriending services and telephone befriending, were highlighted as effective strategies for not only addressing deficits to health but also promoted healthy aging [12,17,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29]. After a comprehensive review of the literature, only one study [30] surfaced that explored outcomes of intergenerational contact through remote connections and considered the benefits to both the older adults and younger volunteers.

Sen and colleagues (2024) [30] explored the impact of friendly discussions in two virtual settings: phone calls and video conferencing. Specifically, 46 university students involved in a service-learning project were paired with 46 older adults residing in various residential care facilities in Texas, Tennessee, Puerto Rico, and Mexico. Researchers focused specifically on boredom and loneliness among the older adults as well as the effect that the intergenerational friendship had on students [30]. The students and older adults connected once a week for 30 min over the course of eight weeks. Students were asked to journal their experience after every call and provide a reflection at the four-week mark and again at the end of the program. The participating older adults were asked to complete a five-item, open-ended questionnaire to collect information regarding their experiences in the program specific to interest and boredom. Researchers confirmed reductions in boredom and loneliness among the older adults and positive reflections on the newly established companionship among students. The pairs showed interest during their conversations and shared their day-to-day experiences, thus fostering a sense of connection across generations [30]. These findings underscore the effectiveness of intergenerational programming in reducing loneliness and cultivating newfound confidence among college students.

Overall, telephone reassurance programs demonstrated benefits to older adults across a multitude of studies. One study even yielded insight into the positive outcomes that volunteers can gain in calling older clientele. These interventions focused on maintaining and enhancing social networks and providing peer support through remote services, but a comprehensive review of the literature generated few studies that reviewed the results of intergenerational telephone reassurance programs that utilize reminiscence and life review techniques. The small subset of the literature yielding results from intergenerational reminiscing found that such techniques led to improved mental health outcomes for older adults [31], and they also provided protective factors against depression and improved life satisfaction among adults with and without intact cognitive capacity [32]. Reminiscing has been well understood as a cathartic process for older individuals as it lends itself to a strategic process in reviewing, reflecting on, and sharing life experiences. In fact, reminiscing and life review therapy, a more formal and oftentimes clinical method for engaging in reminiscing, have been well established as effective means by which to amplify well-being and protect against deficits to health (see [31,32]). Considering the benefits of reminiscing techniques alongside the relative newness of intergenerational telephone reassurance programming, there is a clear need for more research to explore the outcomes of these programs and identify best practices.

Benefits of meaningful intergenerational contact are not only limited to older adults. Xu and colleagues (2023) [33] reported that intergenerational interactions created opportunities for meaningful experiences among younger people that resulted in improved attitudes toward aging. Additionally, opportunities that allow for intergenerational contact may even help to combat common ageist stereotypes [9]. Ageism often stems from a lack of understanding about another age group, which can lead to misperceptions and prejudices. As pointed out by Zorotovich and Sweeney (2002) [10], intentionally designed intergenerational programming allows for quality engagement between groups that equip individuals with personal experiences to challenge common stereotypes. Considering population aging trends in developed nations around the world, offering future professionals the chance to expand on the realm of older adults with whom they interact will likely have immeasurable benefits to their future professional contributions. The extant literature has primarily focused on outcomes of intergenerational programming specific to older adults, leaving our understanding of the benefits to younger participants less understood.

1.4. Current Study

The current study analyzed data from an intergenerational telephone reassurance program where the focal point of conversations surrounded reminiscing and life reflections. Few studies have explored the benefits of intergenerational social connections to both age cohorts involved in regular contact with one another where reminiscence techniques are employed. The current project’s focus on guided reminiscing and life reflections within intergenerational telephonic programming adds a new element of understanding the ways in which programming can be designed to achieve quality outcomes for individuals in age-disparate cohorts and confer bidirectional benefits for all who participate. The main research question of focus in the current project is as follows: What are the experiential outcomes among older adults and college student volunteers after participating in an intergenerational telephone reassurance program that incorporates reminiscence techniques to guide conversations?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Sample

Data for this project were generated through a secondary data analysis source. Data were originally collected from older adults and college students who participated in an intergenerational social connection telephone program where the focal point of conversations pertained to reminiscing and life reflections. A program representative who was unaffiliated with the current manuscript gathered data from adults and college student volunteers to better understand the experiences of those who participated in telephone calls. The current project provided a rigorous means by which to evaluate the already-collected data to explore salient trends within the data. Older adult participants were provided information about the program through healthcare agents and were later contacted by a program representative who provided more information, offered the opportunity to ask questions, and then extended an invitation to receive social engagement phone calls from a trained college student volunteer. At the onset, adults were asked to share information regarding availability, gender preferences of the volunteer who would be calling them, and any descriptive family details they wished to share, such as marital and parental status. College students enrolled in social science courses at various postsecondary educational institutions across the nation were recruited to participate as part of course assignments. Interested college students completed a training prior to being matched with an adult and engaging in the social connection phone calls. Training included education on reminiscing techniques and how to implement these techniques during social contact to help guide life reviews. Participation in the telephone program was free and optional for both adults and college students, and participants had the right to cease participation at any time. Since the focal point of the program was reminiscing, older adults were referred to as Memory Holders and college students as Reminiscence Guides.

The final sample consisted of 99 student–adult dyads. Of the older adults, 80% (n = 79) were women and 20% (n = 20) were men. The age range among older adult participants was 65 to 97 years, with a mean age of 78.5 years. Participants were from a multitude of locations across the United States, as the telephone nature of the program allowed for nationwide participation. Demographic data were not collected from college student participants.

2.2. Data Collection

Data in the current study were sourced from the Caching Memories Program, which is an intergenerational social connection telephone program that links trained college students with older adults who may be susceptible to social isolation and loneliness as identified by medical care agents. This dataset is maintained by achi, which is a social welfare entity focused on holistic human care. The Caching Memories Program dataset contains post-evaluative feedback from older adults and college students who have participated in the program. Each older adult participant receives a Memory Cache Book as a keepsake once their sessions are concluded. The book includes the life stories they shared during phone calls and is created from the notes that student volunteers provide after each phone call. Before final printing, books can be adorned with personal photographs provided by the adult if they desire. At the end of the program, older adults were contacted within a two-week period of having completed phone calls by a program representative who was independent from the current project that analyzed data and engaged in the conceptualization and writing of this manuscript. This representative collected information on adults’ experiences in participating in the program and receiving calls from trained volunteers. Specifically, older adult participants were asked to respond to a set of questions, such as the following:

What was your overall experience with the program?

What was the best part of participating in the program?

Was there anything you did not like about participating in the program?

What did this program teach you about yourself?

What feedback would you like to share?

Students were also asked to provide post-evaluative feedback within a week of having completed phone calls. Specifically, students were invited to provide electronic reflections of their experiences participating in the program by responding to prompts, such as the following:

What was the best part of your time volunteering?

What did you like least about your time volunteering?

What did you learn about yourself while participating?

Access to the Caching Memories dataset was granted by achi, in compliance with data sharing agreements and ethical guidelines established by the housing organization. The researchers obtained approval from their university’s institutional review board prior to accessing and analyzing the data, ensuring adherence to ethical standards for research involving human subjects.

2.3. Analysis

Data analysis was informed by Saldaña’s (2016) [34] two-step methodology. In the initial phase, researchers independently scrutinized the data utilizing descriptive coding techniques to identify recurring themes. During this initial phase, the data were approached again to organize descriptive codes into thematic categories and subcategories [34]. In the subsequent phase of the data analysis, pattern coding was applied to further develop themes and to construct explanations to further elucidate findings [35]. Upon completion of both data analysis phases, researchers met to ensure interrater reliability and to further interpret and validate findings [36]. This process was completed separately with the data generated from the adult participants and then with the data generated from the college student volunteers. Saldaña’s two-step approach was chosen over other methodologies because it allows for researchers to explore complex human experiences above and beyond general categorizing of qualitative data and quantifying text frequencies. Considering the deeply meaningful ways in which interpersonal relationships manifest within individuals, especially during late adulthood when social resources are often limited, researchers sought out Salañda’s approach as a means to vividly capture experiences. Doing so allowed researchers to achieve a deeper, more nuanced understanding.

3. Results

3.1. Older Adults

Two major themes emerged among the older adult participants (i.e., Familial and Friendship Bonds and Self-Discovery), which indicated the impact on the adults who participated in the telephone reassurance program.

3.1.1. Familial and Friendship Bonds

Despite the availability of physical contact, relationships built through phone calls offer many meaningful and impactful bonds between people. The most salient theme that emerged from the adult responses was reflections of affinity for the student caller, who eventually reached a level akin to family members, where deeper bonds could be made through personal information sharing.

She became like a daughter

I love her, she’s great!

I just really fell in love with her and I like that she took her time with me on each call.

I absolutely love [student’s name], she became like family to me. I always looked forward to the phone calls, they made my week better.

Many adult participants reflected on their relationships with student callers as a friendship and this newfound friendship aided in healing when other social outlets were unable to do so.

I got attached to [student’s name], we talked like friends.

We developed a great friendship.

The best part of the program was making a new friend.

I would love to continue a friendship with her. It was a pleasure getting to know her.

I looked forward to each call. We laughed, we cried, it was a great match. We even shared the same birthday! I now have a new best friend. A year ago, I was in so much pain and depressed … and the program helped me deal with some childhood memories that my children don’t want to hear. I am thankful for that.

3.1.2. Self-Discovery

Many of the adult participants shared realizations about themselves that reflected an ongoing process of self-discovery. This process emphasizes that human development is a lifelong process that does not cease after a person has reached adulthood. The process of older adults learning new things about themselves reflects an ongoing journey of growth, adaptation, and self-realization. Self-discovery statements revealed new realizations and reminders of hidden attributes.

Didn’t realize how gusty I was.

I was reminded that I can be self-righteous and that I need to work on this.

I remembered more than expected, I recalled forgotten memories.

3.2. Students

Two major themes emerged among the student participants (i.e., Rejuvenated Appreciation for the Little Things in Life and Sense of Purpose from Meaningful Contributions), which indicated the impact on the students who participated in the telephone reassurance program.

3.2.1. Rejuvenated Appreciation for the Little Things in Life

Student descriptions surrounding a renewed sense of value for small, often overlooked, aspects of life that have the potential to bring joy when attuned to were frequently mentioned in post-evaluative data. This rejuvenated appreciation for the little things in life was best captured in comments, such as the following:

The [program] made me appreciative of my life and the memories it holds, even ones I don’t think much of. It all matters.

It impacted me because I never had the insight of what she did, and it made my mind think differently about how we could view the world.

This story impacted me today because many of us take so many things for granted, while we should be thankful every day.

The stories made me want to build better relationships with my loved ones and focus on spending more time with them.

Others came to better understand the true magnitude of small-scale childhood events and realized that what was previously considered a casual and routine event actually left them with a realm of deeper emotions.

I began to think about my own childhood memories and appreciate the times I had. I never recognized how fast it went by.

I was reminded about so many fun memories with baking and spending time with my grandparents when I was little. For example, planting things in the garden, making cookies and bread, playing dolls, and sewing with my grandma.

This shifting mindset to focus on otherwise mundane events also inspired students to be forward thinking in how they approached and viewed future activities. For instance, one student reflected on the importance of spending more time with family (i.e., Made me realize I need to spend more time with family.), while others realized that having the ability to focus on small health behaviors would be of tremendous value to their future (i.e., It opened my eyes to how important health is).

3.2.2. Sense of Purpose from Meaningful Contributions

Students also indicated that they gained a sense of purpose from having participated in the program. This was often experienced in realizations that the students’ phone calls offered something meaningful to the adults and that the student’s role in the program had important impacts in the lives of others. (i.e., It was nice to hear I made a positive impact on [Memory Holder]). Students began to view their roles as a vehicle for the passing on of knowledge from one generation to the next, recognizing their important function as conduits of knowledge transfer (i.e., It was nice to hear about the things that she thought were important to pass on to people my age and younger). People often experience a sense of purpose during events that feel psychologically and emotionally meaningful and fulfilling. Throughout students’ reflections were an innumerable amount of emotion-charged language that were expressions of both positive and negative affect.

It made me happy to hear her talk about something that made her happy.

I loved hearing about her experience, and it made me happy

Hearing about her feelings of isolation made me sad.

Connection and belonging with others further drive a sense of purpose in work and volunteering endeavors, and this element was present in students’ reflections on their experiences in calling older adults. In fact, many described their interactions with their adult as a type of friendship where commonalities in life experiences were a source of bonding.

It reminded me of being with my best friend.

The stories made me feel a deeper connection with [Memory Holder]. In this one session, she shared many personal life altering stories. I appreciate this experience and even saw similarities

When hearing her stories, I feel more connected to [her] and see a little of her spirit in me.

4. Discussion

The impact of loneliness on both mental and physical health across the lifespan is well established in the literature [1,3]. Calling on socioemotional selectivity theory [6], scholars realize the heightened vulnerability that older adults face regarding dwindled social networks that often accompany normative aging processes but were exacerbated for contemporary cohorts during the COVID-19 pandemic. Fractured social systems are then linked to increased risks for dementia, heart disease, stroke, and other health issues [3]. Such findings highlight the importance of exploring unique ways in which to address social deficits in later life. Intergenerational programs capitalize on already-present social elements in a person’s environment to help mitigate social isolation and support healthy aging. Efforts must focus on enhancing the accessibility of such programming, especially for more vulnerable, hidden populations of adults, such as those in rural areas, individuals who are homebound, and those in residential care facilities. The remote and intergenerational nature of the Caching Memories Program outlined in the current study sheds light on the benefits of easing pathways to social connections in unique ways.

Findings from the current study revealed the potential for intergenerational remote telephone reassurance programs to be effective strategies for addressing issues with social well-being and promoting healthy aging among older adults. Although phone contact does not allow physical proximity, older adult participants who were the Memory Holders in the current study stated that close relationships were still formed and nurtured with their college student counterparts through phone conversations, revealing socioemotional gains. In fact, these relationships mimicked familial bonds and authentic friendships between seemingly different groups of individuals who otherwise would not have met. This finding is firmly situated in socioemotional selectivity theory, which posits that as people age, they begin to prioritize emotionally meaningful relationships [6]. Findings from the current study confirm that quality telephone reassurance programs can offer emotionally satisfying social outlets for adults and protect against isolation and loneliness. Socioemotional selectivity theory also suggests that older adults prefer meaningful interactions over quantity of interactions [6]. Quality telephone reassurance programs allow adult participants to selectively engage in meaningful conversations with others outside of their normal social circle, which provides additional protection from loneliness. Moreover, the remote nature of telephonic programs is highly accessible due to their inherent nature of providing support without requiring physical proximity. The convenience telephone programs have to offer can be particularly useful to vulnerable adults who may face exacerbated risks for loneliness due to social isolation, physical limitations, or lack of transportation. As recent pandemic events have confirmed, such remote programming that yields close social connections is also particularly useful during periods when social distancing is mandated or encouraged. Not only can intergenerational telephone reassurance programs contribute to a continuum of care for those who may experience dwindled social capital due to normative and nonnormative aging processes, but the current study confirms that such programming can actually create deeper social ties that mimic close kinship bonds.

Considering the importance of early developmental experiences shaping an individual’s future, research and theory in human development have historically focused more on changes during these early life stages, often at the expense of focusing on later life development. Changes during later life continue to have profound importance to individuals, but the literature has largely focused on losses associated with aging (see [37]), with less attention being given to understanding the ways in which gains are experienced in later life. Findings from the current study confirm that development continues later in life and that adults continue to experience gains. Specifically, older adult participants expressed elements of self-discovery, highlighting that developmental growth within internal identity structures was achieved. As previously mentioned, socioemotional selectivity theory explains that as individuals age, they begin to prioritize more emotionally gratifying relationships. This prioritization can lead to self-discovery as individuals seek to understand their emotional needs and values in the context of their social relationships. Socioemotional selectivity theory [6] highlights that acute awareness of time left in life is something that some often experience in later years. Older adults’ shifts toward socioemotional motives enhance self-discovery through the lens of emotional experiences [38].

Benefits of participating in the Caching Memories Program outlined in the current study were not isolated to the older adults who received phone calls. College students who served as Reminiscence Guides and facilitated interactions also reflected on developmental growth. Student participants expressed a rejuvenated appreciation of the little things in life. Oftentimes, professionals with an abundance of experience working in more intense care settings are those more likely to express a deeper sense of appreciation and mindfulness in life’s simple pleasures. It has been long established that professionals providing end-of-life support often express extreme appreciation for their own lives [39]. Recent attention has also been given to the ways in which post-traumatic growth manifests in the lives of professionals caring for individuals facing a range of losses (see [40]). More time spent in the field working with others provides professionals with repeated exposure to the many ways in which life changes with aging, which then contributes to the deepened meaning of everyday moments. Since students in the current program had not yet embarked on their professional careers, it is impressive that they were able to reflect on a level akin to more experienced professionals.

Students also reflected a deeper sense of purpose from their role in the program. Socioemotional selectivity theory provides a model to understand the bidirectional influences between people’s social relationships and their emotional well-being and how these are influenced by the perception of time [6]. Although the theory mainly focuses on the socioemotional motivations of older people, it also provides some insight into the social priorities of younger adults. In a normative life course, younger individuals typically view time as abundant and, in doing so, seek out relationships for more function-based purposes [6]. College-aged individuals are largely focused on skill acquisition in preparation for the workforce. Volunteering can offer benefits beyond traditional classroom learning [41], where students are offered the chance to enhance their soft, social skills [42]. Volunteering, in general, provides students with a profound sense of purpose [42,43,44], but volunteering with older people can also instill an appreciation for intergenerational relationships [45] and deepen the sense of purpose gained from the experience.

The one-on-one social connection alongside the program’s emphasis on reminiscing offered several elements conducive to highly meaningful work. Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2009) [46] provide a model to best understand the characteristics of meaningful work, and the Caching Memories Program achieves several of these markers. Specifically, the importance of unity with others and serving others are two main components outlined by Lips-Wiersma and Morris (2009) [46]. Offering opportunities for meaningful social engagement fostered a sense of connection and belonging between the older adult Memory Holder and their college student Reminiscence Guide, which created a stronger bond between these age-disparate groups. Moreover, student participants contributed to the creation of a Memory Cache Book that was mailed to older adult participants at the end of the program. This contribution allowed students to see the impact of their work as contributing to the benefit of someone else, which led to a heightened sense of purpose for college student participants.

The psychologically and emotionally meaningful nature of the Caching Memories Program resulted in developmental growth for both older adult and college student participants. Reminiscing and life review techniques amplify well-being by encouraging reflection and meaning-making of past experiences [31,32]. The intergenerational nature of the program, where older adults were the Memory Holders and younger college students the Reminiscence Guide, complemented well-established reminiscing techniques by providing a structure for understanding each person’s contribution to the social environment. The current study underscores the importance of interventions, even more generalized models used outside of clinical settings, such as the current intergenerational telephone reassurance programs, in promoting well-being among older adults and also creating accessible means to reach more vulnerable communities. Through consistent and meaningful support, such interventions play a crucial role in enhancing socioemotional development in later life and also confer benefits to the younger adults who facilitate the contact. These benefits highlight the importance of sustaining and expanding such initiatives to ensure that older adults receive the vital social and emotional support they need for healthy aging.

The current study is not without limitations. More robust demographic data were not available on participants, as only age and gender were collected from the older adults during the early portions of the program. Similarly, demographic data for students was also lacking, including information on specific age parameters, as this was not a part of the original data collection survey. Exact age was not the central focus of the current study, but understanding outcomes from exchanges between disparate groups was the main goal. Even though age was not gathered, groups varied tremendously in their current social roles. Specifically, all volunteers were college students. The social roles and responsibilities of college students are markedly different than those of the older adult participants in the program. Moreover, 2024 data revealed that 75% of U.S. college students were under the age of 29 years. An additional 2.83% were between ages 30 and 30, 1.69% between 38 and 47, and less than one percent were 50 or older [47]. In short, we can still infer intergenerational differences based on status, and in doing so may actually avoid unintended negative outcomes such as reductionism. Future research should consider collecting more detailed sociodemographic characteristics such as race, ethnicity, social class, and other familial and environmental factors to more appropriately generalize findings. Additionally, future research would benefit from longitudinal data collection to better understand the long-term impacts of reminiscence-based social exchanges, as this is an area of current void in the extant literature [31]. The current study analyzed qualitative data from participants, and having quantitative data to analyze alongside more specific measures of loneliness and isolation will help provide a fuller understanding of the impacts of such programming on these specific deficits that are commonly associated with later life.