Using the Yingzao Fashi to Analyze Architectural Elements in Japanese and Korean Buildings: Comparing the Yingzao Fashi’s Specifications with the Dimensional Properties of Historic Buildings
Waseda Research Institute for Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo 169-0051, Japan
Architecture 2025, 5(3), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/architecture5030067
Submission received: 7 March 2025
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Revised: 6 June 2025
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Accepted: 19 August 2025
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Published: 25 August 2025
Abstract
Many similarities can be observed among the timber structures that were built in ancient Japan, China, and Korea, bearing witness to the exchanges between these countries. Japan and China had technical manuals that contributed to the development of architecture in each country. Korea might also have had such manuals, but none have been found. In this study, the author analyzed a Chinese technical manual, the Yingzao Fashi, to derive its system for determining the proportions of architectural elements. The author then applied this system to the dimensions of historic buildings in Korea and Japan to obtain insights into proportionality in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean architectural elements.
1. Introduction
The architecture of Ancient Japan (300–1185) is characterized by timber structures bearing many resemblances to those of ancient China and Korea, a result of exchanges between Japan and these countries. This architecture includes Buddhist temples. Buddhist temples began to be built in East Asia following the arrival of Buddhism. Over time, country-specific features emerged in the Buddhist architecture, which persist to this day. Among East Asian countries, Japan and China produced technical manuals on architecture and design techniques that remain extant, allowing us to trace the development of architecture in these two countries. The most famous of all the Chinese technical manuals is the 『Yingzao Fashi (營造法式: “Architectural Construction Code”) 』.
Chinese technical manuals such as the 『Yingzao Fashi』 and the 『Gongcheng Zuofa Zeli (工程做法則例: “Regulations and Precedents Concerning Methods for Building Crafts”) 』 have received considerable scholarly attention in Japan, but no scholar has ever compared the stipulations in these texts with the dimensional properties of timber members in extant edifices. A number of Japanese researchers have analyzed the Yingzao Fashi, Takuichi Takeshima [1] being an example. When reviewing previous studies, researchers such as Guo Q., Feng J., Glahn E., Hui Li, Cong TANG, and Chan PARK can be found there are no existing papers that specifically focus on the proportional relationships of building components [2]. Building on this scholarship, the author analyzed the Yingzao Fashi’s stipulations in the chapters grouped under “structural features (major carpentry)” to identify its system of proportionality for timber members. The author then compared these proportionality standards with the dimensions of actual timber members in Japanese and Korean edifices.
By comparing Chinese technical manuals that are yet to receive scholarly attention with actual buildings in Japan and Korea, it should be possible to quantify the degree of resemblance in the architectural styles of the three countries that existed within a cultural sphere of common structural carpentry and craftsmanship. Therefore, this study offers insights into the sustainability of historic technical manuals, taking into account time period and region. It would like to figure out if the Yingzao Fashi is sustainable as a Chinese technical book.
The author’s method was as follows. The author analyzed edifices that were either a National Treasure or Important Cultural Property measuring three “bays” (間 Japan. ken, Republic of Korea. kan, China. jian) along the front axis and three bays along the side axis, which is the basic structural form of a building. For this analysis, the author referred to official dimensions stated in published reports about the upkeep and structure of the properties in question. The author then compared these edifices with proportionality standards set out in Yingzao Fashi. The Yingzao Fashi’s the author used were those that featured the same three-by-three structure. This article aimed to compare the specifications with the dimensional properties of the timber members, not to understand the origins of architectural technology. Hence, the author considered all Important Cultural Properties as subjects for analysis.
Of the processes for which Yingzao Fashi provides specifications, the author analyzed those related to three broad categories of timber members that feature in three-by-three structures mentioned above [3] and that would allow Yingzao Fashi’s specifications to be compared with the dimensional properties. These categories were the (1) framework, (2) bracket set, and (3) roof.
1.1. The Yingzao Fashi
The Yingzao Fashi (Figure 1) is a technical manual on architecture released by Li Jie in 1103, during the Northern Song Dynasty of China. Summarized below is the Japanese model for applying Yingzao Fashi’s specifications on structural forms. The Yingzao Fashi delineates the following architectural processes: moats and fortifications, stonework, structural features (major carpentry), non-structural features (minor carpentry), wood carving, woodturning, sawing, bamboo working, tiling, clay work, painting, brickwork, and kilning. Chapters 16 to 25 purport to outline the work processes, but in effect, they simply provide a list of calculations for materials. They also provide instructions on estimation.
The Yingzao Fashi can be likened to Japan’s kiwari manuals. “Kiwari” (木割) is a Japanese system that prescribes the dimensional properties of timber members based on the diameter of a column. While the exact method varies depending on the building’s size and style, kiwari generally uses the core bay and side bays as the basic dimensional units. The column diameter is determined based on the proportions set out in the kiwari manual in question. This defined column diameter is then used to determine the dimensions of the following elements: the sleepers (Japan. 地覆 jifuku), non-penetrating tie beams (Japan. 長押 nageshi), penetrating tie beams (Japan. 貫 nuki), purlins (Japan. 桁 keta), cross beams (Japan. 梁 hari), and rafters (Japan. 垂木 taruki). In this way, kiwari served as an empirical method for craftsmen, one that existed since before the Edo period (1603–1868) and that is attested in numerous kiwari manuals.
Kiwari manuals [4] are manuals that provide specifications on timber members according to the style and size of the building. Their content varies between the different kiwari lineages. In simplest terms, kiwari manuals are technical manuals dating back to Japan’s Medieval period (1185–1568) that were intended to pass on the knowledge of master craftsmen. Some 500 kiwari manuals remain extant. Many of them contain interpolations by successive generations of renowned master craftsmen, and many share the same stipulations. However, as is often the case with ancient texts, parts of the texts remain undiscovered in some cases, leaving open the possibility that they will be discovered in the future.
Another kind of ancient Japanese manual is the kikijutsu manuals (Japan. 規矩術書 Kikujutsu-sho). The kikijutsu manuals are similar to the kiwari manuals, but they concern, strictly speaking, a different level of craftsmanship; they include more details, such as joinery techniques and numerical values for sub-components. In other words, kiwari manuals are concerned with the overall design of the building, while kikijutsu manuals are concerned with the more intricate processes like joinery.
1.2. Analytical Method
To reiterate, the edifices the author analyzed in this study were vestiges classed as a National Treasure or an Important Cultural Property. The Japanese properties, which had a three-by-three bay size, comprised 16 National Treasures and 155 Important Cultural Properties. For 52 of these edifices, survey data have been published, revealing the dimensions of the structure [5]. As for the Korean properties, survey data revealing the dimensions were available for 43 of the properties [6]. This study extracts proportional formulas from the content of the Yingzao Fashi and compares them with the dimensional data of extant architectural structures in Japan and Korea.
For scaling, the author used the following method. Defining an integer multiple as an evenly divisible multiple, the author applied a ±0.1 margin of error to the multiples 1, 1.5, and 2. In the case of the fraction multiples 1/3 to 1/9, The author multiplied just the numerator of the fraction by the integer multiple without applying a margin of error, within the integer range.
The dimensional items the author selected for the comparison were those that are provided for in the Yingzao Fashi and that feature in Korean, Chinese, and Japanese buildings. These dimensional items pertain to framework elements, bracket set elements, and roof elements. They are as follows: (1) diameter of a column (Japan. 柱径 hasirakei, China. zhùjìng); (2) height (vertical size) and (3) width (horizontal size) of a sleeper (Japan. 地覆 jifuku, China. dìfǎn); (4) the height and (5) width of a hip-penetrating tie beam (Japan. 腰貫 koshi-nuki, China. yóué); (6) the height and (7) width of a neck-penetrating tie beam (Japan. 飛貫 hi-nuki, China. yóué); (8) the height and (9) width of a head-penetrating tie beam (Japan. 頭貫 kashira-nuki, China. lán’é); the (10) height and (11) width of a bracket arm (Japan. 肘木 hijiki, China. gǒng); (12) the height, (13) width, and (14) length of a large bearing block (Japan. 大斗 daito, China. lúdǒu); (15) the height, (16) width, and (17) length of a small bearing block (Japan. 巻斗 makito, China. dǒu); and (18) the height and (19) width of a base rafter (Japan. 垂木 taruki, China. chuán) [7].
2. Analyzing the Dimensional Properties of the Timber Members
2.1. Basic Unit (The Unit Used as the Basis for Determining Dimensions)
Since there are no extant Korean technical manuals, the author referred to Japanese kiwari manuals and Chinese technical manuals. In the kiwari manuals, the basic unit (the unit used as the basis for determining dimensions) is the diameter of a column. However, in the Chinese technical manuals, the basic unit is one-fifteenth of the height (vertical length) of a bracket arm. The Yizao Fashi uses the term ”fen” (分°) to describe this unit. It also uses the term “cai” (材) to indicate the height of a bracket arm, or the length of 15 fen. There are eight grades of cai representing different bracket arm sizes (thus, the actual length of a unit varies between the cai grades). The cai grade determines the dimensions of the structural members and the size of the structure as a whole. Grade 1 is associated with a 9–11-bay “building core” (Japan. 母屋 moya: the central area of a large building), Grade 2 with a 5–7-bay building core, Grade 3 with a 3- or 5-bay building core, Grade 4 with a 3-bay “hall” (Japan. 堂 do: a relatively simple edifice), Grade 5 with a small 3-bay hall, and so on. The cai grade the author selected for the author’s analysis was grade 4. At this grade, a unit (fen) is scaled at 0.048 chi (尺), such that the bracket arm (a single cai) is 0.72 units long (0.048 multiplied by 15) and 0.48 units wide. However, since the author was comparing proportionality, the author defined the base dimension as one-fifteenth the length of a bracket arm that is 15 units long and 10 units wide. Table 1 present the results of the author’s analysis using this scale.
The author examined the bracket arm widths in the extant buildings. Among the Korean buildings, 8 had a concordance rate of at least 90%, and 16 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%. Among the Japanese buildings, one building had a concordance rate of at least 90% and eight had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%. The comparison revealed that Japanese bracket arms tended to be wider than the Chinese and Korean ones. This observation denotes that Korea used a similar dimensional basis to that in China. In the Japanese buildings, the bracket arms were wider, and the bracket set as a whole was shorter.
Thus, during Japan’s Medieval period, which saw the advent of the Zenshuyo style (禅宗様), framework height was similar across the Japanese, Korean, and Chinese buildings, but Japanese buildings had shorter bracket sets and larger roofs than those of the other countries. This divergence may have been caused by the advent of the hidden roof (Japan. 野屋根 noyane) in the Medieval period. A major feature of Japanese architecture, the hidden roof, deviates from typical roof structures in terms of flatness and space. These features allow for considerable freedom in design, and as such, they marked a leap forward in architectural technology. An inspection of extant Buddhist halls suggests that roof structures with a deep inner structure became more prominent in the latter half of the Heian period, when the inner roof is thought to have disseminated. Figure 2 depicts a roof with a truss structure. Thus, the roof as a whole had become larger.
2.2. Framework
The framework of a building comprises the following elements: columns (Japan. 柱径 hasirakei), sleepers (Japan. 地覆 jifuku), hip-penetrating tie beams (Japan. 腰貫 koshi-nuki), neck-penetrating tie beams (Japan. 飛貫 hi-nuki), and head-penetrating tie beams (Japan. 頭貫 kashira-nuki). Table 2 and Table 3 present the dimensions of these elements measured in the basic unit (fen).
First, the author focused on the standard diameter of a column (Table 2). According to the Yingzhao Fashi, columns should have a diameter of 42 to 45 units (fen). From these standard column diameters, the author derived four integer multiples: 42, 43, 44, and 45. The author applied these multiples in the author’s analysis of the extant buildings. The author’s analysis of the Korean buildings revealed the following results. When the multiple was 42, 10 of the Korean buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 12 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 8 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. When the multiple was 43, the results were nine buildings, 11 buildings, and 8 buildings; when it was 44, the results were 9 buildings, 10 buildings, and 7 buildings; when it was 45, the results were 12 buildings, 6 buildings, and 7 buildings. Crucially, the concordance rate was the highest when the column diameter was scaled at 42 units; 30 of the 43 Korean buildings the author analyzed had a concordance rate of at least 70% at this scale. This observation implies that Korean buildings are closely aligned with the standard dimensions regardless of architectural style, time period, and region. This result (30 out of 43) is equivalent to 70%.
Analysis of the Japanese buildings revealed the following results. When the multiple was 42, 14 of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 8 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and seven had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. When the multiple was 43, the results were 13, 8, and 7; when it was 44, the results were 13, 5, and 6; when it was 45, the results were 12, 6, and 4. When the multiple was 42, the Japanese buildings as a whole generally concorded, with 29 buildings having a close concordance rate.
A temporal variation can be observed: Buildings dated between the late 12th century and late 14th century are out of proportion to all the multiples (42 to 45). Japanese buildings tended to feature smaller sizes than the standard diameters for columns (42 units to 45 units). Buildings built between the late 12th century account for 14 of the 52 Japanese buildings the author analyzed. If these 14 buildings are excluded, then of the remaining 38 buildings, 29 (76%) have a high concordance rate. As for regional variation, discrepancies can be found among buildings in Nara, Nagano, Hyogo, Shiga, Tochigi, and Gifu, suggesting that regional variation occurs across Japan, with no concentration in any particular region.
Subsequently, the author examined the height (vertical length) of a sleeper. The standard length is 17 units or 18 units. The author tested both multiples (17 and 18) on the Korean and Japanese buildings. Analysis of the Korean buildings revealed the following results. When the multiple was 17, 7 of the Korean buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 5 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 12 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. When the multiple was 18, 10 of the Korean buildings had at least a 90% concordance, eight had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and eight had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Thus, when a sleeper’s height was scaled at 18 units, 26 (74%) of the 35 Korean buildings had a concordance rate of at least 70%; this excludes four buildings for which the sleeper length was unclear and buildings that had a column-centered bracket set (柱心包 Republic of Korea. jusimpo Japan. chushinho) that was inconsistent with the scale. Analysis of buildings with a column-centered bracket set revealed that the components were larger than the standard dimensions. Analysis of the Japanese buildings revealed the following results. When the multiple was 17, 10 of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 12 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 1 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. When the multiple was 18, 10 of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, nine had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and four had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Thus, the concordance rate is higher when the sleeper length is scaled at 18 units. A high concordance rate can be observed among the buildings built in the 12th to 14th centuries, in contrast to the case of the column diameter. Overall, the concordance rate is lower than that of the Korean buildings.
The author then analyzed the standard sleeper width, which is typically 12 units. The author tested this multiple on the Korean and Japanese buildings. Analysis of the Korean buildings revealed the following results. In total, 6 of the Korean buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 8 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 13 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. The author observed the variation by time period and architectural style: The concordance rate was higher among buildings built in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries. The sleepers were wider than standard among buildings that used a column-centered bracket set. Analysis of the Japanese buildings revealed the following results. Compared to the Korean buildings, fewer Japanese buildings overall had a high concordance: 11 of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 10 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 7 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. As with Korean buildings, the author observed that the concordance rate was higher among buildings built in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, suggesting that those built before the 15th century were likely to be out of proportion. In both Korean and Japanese buildings, the dimensions tended to be larger than the standard dimensions stipulated in the Yingzao Fashi.
The next dimension the author investigated was the standard height of neck-penetrating and hip-penetrating tie beams. According to the Yingzao Fashi, the standard height of the former is 27 units and that of the latter is 28 units. Analysis of the Korean buildings revealed the following results. When the multiple was 27, three of the Korean buildings had at least a 90% concordance, eight had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and nine had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. When the multiple was 28, three of the Korean buildings had at least a 90% concordance, seven had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and eight had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. In both cases, the concordance rates were low. However, the concordance rate was high among the buildings with a column-centered bracket set (柱心包 Republic of Korea. jusimpo Japan. Chushinpo). Analysis of the Japanese buildings revealed the following results. When the multiple was 27, 12 of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 11 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 6 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. When the multiple was 28, 14 of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 10 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 3 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%.
Following this, the author assessed the standard width of neck-penetrating and hip-penetrating tie beams. According to the Yingzao Fashi, both widths are 18 units. Analysis of the Korean buildings revealed that two of the Korean buildings had at least a 90% concordance, four had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and two had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Analysis of the Japanese buildings revealed that three of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, six had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 10 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Thus, in both the Korean and Japanese buildings, the dimensions were inconsistent with the Yingzao Fashi’s specifications; they tended to be smaller than the standard dimensions stipulated in the Yingzao Fashi. However, as was the case with the height of these elements, the concordance rate was high among the Korean buildings with a column-centered bracket set (柱心包 Republic of Korea. jusimpo Japan. chushinpo).
Next, the author focused on the standard height of a head-penetrating tie beam (Table 3). The standard height is 30 units. Analysis of the Korean buildings revealed that six of the Korean buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 15 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 2 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%.
Analysis of the Japanese buildings revealed that 13 of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 12 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 5 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Among the Japanese buildings, those built in the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries had poor concordance rates, while the concordance rate was better for buildings built before the 14th century. Among the Korean buildings, those built in the 19th century had poor concordance rates, while the older buildings had good concordance rates. In the Korean and Japanese buildings with non-standard dimensions, the dimensions were smaller than standard, implying a lack of region-specific patterns.
Lastly, the author analyzed the standard width of a head-penetrating tie beam (Table 3). The standard length is 20 units. Analysis of the Korean buildings revealed that nine of them had at least a 90% concordance, five had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and nine had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Analysis of the Japanese buildings revealed that 13 of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, nine had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and six had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. As in the case of length, Japanese buildings constructed in the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries had poorer concordance rates. In the Korean and Japanese buildings with non-standard dimensions, the dimensions are smaller than standard.
The analysis of framework elements can be summarized as follows. The greatest concordance rate was seen in column diameter. Given that Japan’s kiwari manuals stipulate column diameter as the basic unit for determining the dimensions, it is unsurprising that, when the three countries are compared, the author find a relatively high concordance rate with the column diameters of the buildings described in Japanese kiwari manuals. Temporal variation was observed: In Japan, buildings constructed in the 12th, 13th, or 14th century were either more likely or less likely (depending on the element in question) to be in concordance with the standard dimensions set out in the Yingzao Fashi. In the century after this time range, Japan entered the Warring States period (it began in 1467 or 1493). After the Warring States period, handcrafted architectural elements became larger [8]. However, how this change in element size is related to the change in architectural technology remains unclear. The dimensions of the buildings the author analyzed were smaller than the standard dimensions set out in the Yingzao Fashi, with the exception of sleeper dimensions.
2.3. Bracket Set
The bracket set comprises the following elements: bracket arms (Japan. 肘木 hijiki), large bearing blocks (Japan. 大斗 daito), and small bearing blocks (Japan. 巻斗 makito). Table 4 presents the dimensions of these elements measured in the basic unit (fen). First, the author focused on the standard height of a large bearing block. The standard height is 20 fen. Analysis of the Korean buildings revealed that 11 of the Korean buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 9 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 4 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Analysis of the Japanese buildings revealed that 25 of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 11 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 6 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Notably, as many as 42 of these 44 Japanese buildings with large bearing blocks had a concordance rate of at least 70%. Moreover, 25 had a concordance rate of at least 90%. As for the Korean buildings, in those with a column-centered bracket set (柱心包 Republic of Korea. jusimpo Japan. chushinpo), the blocks were at least twice as long as the standard length.
The author then turned to the standard width of a large bearing block. The Yingzao Fashi stipulates a standard width of 32 units. Analysis of the Korean buildings revealed that 13 of the Korean buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 13 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 11 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Analysis of the Japanese buildings revealed that 15 of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 17 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and five had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Of the Korean buildings, 37 (86%) had a concordance rate of at least 70%. Among the non-concordant cases, the blocks were wider than the standard width. Large bearing blocks were present in 44 of the Japanese buildings. Of these 44 buildings, 37 (84%) had a concordance rate of at least 70%. Among the non-concordant cases, the blocks were wider than the standard width, as in the case of the Korean non-concordant cases.
Following this, the author examined the standard length of a large bearing block. The standard depth is 32 units. Analysis of the Korean buildings revealed that 18 of the Korean buildings had at least a 90% concordance, seven had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 12 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Analysis of the Japanese buildings revealed that 18 of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 17 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 4 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Of the Korean buildings, 37 had a concordance of at least 70%, the same number as in the case of width, but the number of buildings with a concordance of at least 90% was higher than that in the case of width. The Japanese buildings, likewise, had a higher concordance rate than they did in the case of width.
Table 5 presents the standard height of a small bearing block. The standard height is 10 units. Analysis of the Korean buildings revealed that 7 of them had at least a 90% concordance, 9 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 11 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Analysis of the Japanese buildings revealed that one of them had at least a 90% concordance, four had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and three had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%.
The standard width of a small bearing block. The standard width is 16 units. Analysis of the Korean buildings revealed that 15 of them had at least a 90% concordance, 10 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 8 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Analysis of the Japanese buildings revealed that four of them had at least a 90% concordance, seven had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and five had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Among the Korean buildings, the concordance rate was at least 70% in 32 of the 36 buildings that had a multi-bracket set (多包 Republic of Korea. Dapo, Japan. Taho).
Lastly, the standard length of a small bearing block. The standard width is 16 units. Analysis of the Korean buildings revealed that 16 of them had at least a 90% concordance, 10 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 7 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. Analysis of the Japanese buildings revealed that four of them had at least a 90% concordance, eight had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and nine had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%.
The bracket set also includes bracket arms, but the author already analyzed this element in Section 2.1.
The above analysis can be summarized as follows. Of the elements analyzed, large bearing blocks were associated with the highest concordance rates. Notably, as many as 42 (95%) of the 44 Japanese buildings had a concordance rate of at least 70% for the height of a large bearing block. Similarly, as many as 86% of the buildings in Korea had a concordance rate of at least 70% for the width and height of a large bearing block.
Regarding dimensions for a small bearing block, among the Korean buildings that featured a multi-bracket set (among which the author had confirmed discrepancies based on architectural style. 多包 Republic of Korea. Dapo, Japan. Taho), the small bearing blocks had smaller-than-standard dimensions, while buildings that featured a column-centered set had small bearing blocks with larger-than-standard dimensions. One possible reason for this observation is that multi-bracket sets use more small bearing blocks than column-centered bracket sets (柱心包 Republic of Korea. jusimpo Japan. Chushinpo). Among the Japanese buildings, the author found many instances where the dimensions were larger than the standard dimensions prescribed in the Yingzao Fashi.
2.4. Roof Elements
The roof elements include rafters (Table 6). According to the Yingzao Fashi, the standard length of a roof rafter is 7 units or 8 units. None of the Korean buildings conform to this standard. When the multiple is 7, seven of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, two had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and six had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. When the multiple is 8, eight of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, six had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and five had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%.
The standard width of a roof rafter is, like the standard length, 7 or 8 fen. When the multiple is 7, 18 of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, nine had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and eight had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. When the multiple is 8, 15 of the Japanese buildings had at least a 90% concordance, 17 had a concordance rate of 80% to 89%, and 7 had a concordance rate of 70% to 79%.
The first thing to note is that, of the three countries, Korea had the largest roof rafters; in the Korean buildings, the roof rafters were more than twice as large as the standard size prescribed in the Yingzao Fashi. The presence of larger-than-standard rafters in the Korean buildings can be explained: Roofs in Korea and China contained a mud mixture and were, therefore, heavier; hence, they needed bulkier rafters to hold the roof up. More puzzling is the presence of larger-than-standard rafters in the Japanese buildings. In Japan, the roof structure evolved in the Medieval period such that thinner rafters could be used. Then, why the rafters are larger than the standard dimensions set out in the Chinese technical manuals remains unclear.
3. Concordance Rate of Actual Dimensions with Yangzao Fashi Specifications
Of the 43 Korean buildings the author analyzed, the Daeungjeon Halls of Kwanryong-sa Temple, Yulgoksa Temple, Naeso-sa Temple, Bongwon-sa Temple, and Mihwang-sa Temple ranked joint first in the number of dimensional items with a concordance rate of at least 90%. In these buildings, the said concordance rate was observed in 6 of the 16 dimensional items included in the analysis (column diameter; height and width of the sleeper; height and width of the hip-penetrating tie beam; height and width of the neck-penetrating tie beam; height and width of the head-penetrating tie beam; height, width, and depth of the large bearing block; height, width, and depth of the small bearing block; and height of the base rafter). The buildings with the highest 80–89% proximity were five buildings with six items, and the building with the highest 70–79% proximity was the Daeungbojeon of Bulyong-sa Temple, which had nine items. Five buildings ranked joint first, in 13 out of 16 items, for the number of dimensional items with a concordance rate of at least 70%. These were the Daeungjeon Hall of Kwanryong-sa Temple, the Daeungjeon Hall of Chondung-sa Temple, the Bogwang-Myeongjeon Hall Sungbong-sa Temple, the Daeungjeon Hall of Yulgok-sa Temple, and the Daeungjeon Pavillon of Unmun-sa Temple. These five buildings were built in the 17th and 18th centuries (in order, 1618, 1621, 1673, 1679, and 1718). The buildings are not concentrated in any particular location; they are located disparately among the regions of Gyeongsangnam-do, Ganghwa-do, Jeollabuk-do, and Gyeongsangbuk-do.
Of the 52 Japanese buildings the author analyzed, the Shoin-do Hall of Manpuku-ji Temple ranked first in the number of dimensional items with a concordance rate of at least 90%. In this building, the said concordance rate was observed in 9 of the 17 dimensional items included in the analysis (the 16 dimensional items included in the Korean analysis plus the width of the base rafter). In second place, with eight items, was the Kaizando (founder’s hall) of Todai-ji Temple. The Kannon-do Hall of Shinkomyo-ji Temple and the Hondo (main hall) of Entsu-ji Temple ranked joint first in the number of dimensional items with a concordance rate of 80% to 89%. Both buildings had nine such items. The Hondo of Joko-ji Temple ranked first in the number of dimensional items with a concordance rate of 70% to 79%. It had seven such items. Two buildings ranked joint first, at 15 out of 16 items, for the number of dimensional items with a concordance rate of at least 70%. These were the Amida Hall of Saigan-ji Temple and the Kaizando of Sempuku-ji Temple. In joint second place, at 14 out of 16 items, were the Kannon-do Hall of Shinkomyo-ji Temple, the Hondo of Joko-ji Temple, and the Hondo of Entu-ji Temple. These buildings were built (in the order listed above) in 1478, 1493, 1495, 1532, and 1636, denoting that buildings built before the 15th century had poor concordance with the dimensional standards.
Most of the buildings are not concentrated in any particular location; they are located disparately among the Aichi, Chiba, Hiroshima, and Oita prefectures. Notably, however, the Shoin-do Hall of Manpuku-ji Temple and the Kaizando of Todai-ji Temple—the two top-ranking buildings for the number of dimensional items with a concordance rate of at least 90%—are located in one of the ancient capitals (Kyoto and Nara, respectively), where many examples of ancient Japanese architecture are clustered.
4. Conclusions
In this study, the author derived a proportionality system from the Yingzao Fashi (a Chinese technical manual) and applied it to the dimensions of buildings in Japan and Korea. This analysis yielded five findings.
First, when the author applied the basic unit derived from the Yingzao Fashi to buildings, the author found that bracket arms were wider in the Japanese buildings than in the Korean and Chinese buildings. Following the advent of the Zenhshuyo style in Japan’s Medieval period, roofs in Japan became larger and the bracket sets became shorter. This development was probably due to the advent of the hidden roof (Japan. 野屋根 noyane) in Medieval Japan.
Second, among the dimensional items in the framework category, the concordance rate was the highest in the column diameter. Japanese kiwari manuals used column diameter as the basic unit for determining dimensions, which may explain the high degree of concordance among the basic framework elements in the Japanese buildings. Comparing the framework elements by time period revealed that Japanese buildings were most likely to concord with the technical manuals during the 15th century, when Japan entered the Warring States period.
Third, of the dimensional items in the bracket set category, the concordance rate was the highest in the dimensions for a large bearing block. As many as 42 (95%) of the 44 Japanese buildings had a concordance rate of at least 70% for the height of a large bearing block. Similarly, in the Korean buildings, the author observed a high concordance rate for the width and depth of a large bearing block. Regarding dimensions for a small bearing block, in the Korean buildings that featured a multi-bracket set (among which the author confirmed discrepancies based on architectural style), the small bearing blocks had smaller-than-standard dimensions, while the Korean buildings that featured a column-centered set had small bearing blocks with larger-than-standard dimensions. One possible reason for this observation is that multi-bracket sets (多包 Republic of Korea. Dapo, Japan. Taho), use more small bearing blocks than column-centered bracket sets (柱心包 Republic of Korea. jusimpo Japan. Chushinpo).
The fourth finding concerns dimensional items in the roof category, namely the dimensions for a base rafter. Among the three countries, the concordance rate was the highest in the Korean buildings. In the period equivalent to Japan’s Medieval period, a mud mixture started to be used in Korean and Chinese roofs, whereas the same development did not occur in Japan. The use of mud mixture made the roofs heavier; hence, they needed bulkier rafters to hold the roof up.
Fifth, of the 43 Korean buildings the author analyzed, 5 ranked in joint first place for the number of dimensional items with a concordance rate of at least 90%. In these buildings, the said concordance rate was observed in 6 out of the 16 items. Of the 52 Japanese buildings the author analyzed, the Busshari Shoin-do Hall of Manpuku-ji Temple ranked first in the number of dimensional items with a concordance rate of at least 90%. In this building, the said concordance rate was observed in nine items. These six buildings are not concentrated in any particular location.
The above findings imply that the Yingzao Fashi’s stipulations on proportionality were reflected in the design technology. The author analyzed the overall results by region and chronology (year of construction) but found no relationship, suggesting that dimensions may have changed during subsequent restoration work.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the Waseda Research Institute for Science and Engineering for your support.
Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest.
Appendix A
(1) [12]
(3) The minimum standard used for the standard scale of buildings was 3 Ken (間: rooms) on the front elevation and 3 Ken on the side elevation. There are few buildings with a configuration of 5 Ken × 5 Ken or 7 Ken × 7 Ken. In this paper, a 3 Ken × 3 Ken building was used as the target subject of the study as this is the minimum spatial standard, excluding the Mokosi and spatial extensions such as Hisasi. (Figure A1. [8])
Figure A1.
Position of Ken, ChuoMa, WakiMa.
Figure A2.
B–B cross-section of Figure A1 (red part).
Figure A2.
B–B cross-section of Figure A1 (red part).
Table A1.
Organize architectural terms.
| Japanese | Korean | English |
|---|---|---|
| ChuoMa | EoKan | Core bay |
| WakiMa | HyeopKan | Side bay |
| Mokosi | ChaYang | Pent roof |
| Hasira | GiDung | column |
| Hasirakei | GiDungpok | Diameter of a column |
| Jihuku | HaInBang | Sleeper |
| Koshi-nuki | JungInBang | Hip-penetrating tie beam |
| Hi-nuki | SangInBang | Neck-penetrating tie beam |
| Kashira-nuki | ChangBang | Head-penetrating tie beam |
| Daito | JuDu | Large bearing block |
| Makito | SoRo | Small bearing block |
| Hijiki | JangHyeo | Bracket arm |
| Taruki | SuKaRae,Yenmok | Rafter |
| Kumimono | GongPo | Bracket set |
(5) List of buildings that were the target subjects of this study. Table A2
Based on a survey report published by the Cultural Heritage Administration, Japan.
Table A2.
Analysis building list (Japan).
| No | Name | No | Name |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Amida-do halL 阿弥陀堂（白水阿弥陀堂） | 27 | Omi-do of Kotoku-ji Temple 広徳寺大御堂 |
| 2 | Yakusi-do of Chuzen-ji Temple 中禅寺薬師堂 | 28 | Kannon-do of Horai-ji Temple 鳳来寺観音堂 |
| 3 | Amida-do of Nyoi-ji Temple 如意寺阿弥陀堂 | 29 | Yakusi-do of Eihuku-ji Temple 栄福寺薬師堂 |
| 4 | Kaizan-do of Todai-ji Temple 東大寺開山堂 | 30 | Kannon-do of Shinkomyo-ji Temple 信光明寺観音堂 |
| 5 | Amida-do of Myodo-ji Temple 明導寺阿弥陀堂 | 31 | Dainichi-do of Shoren-ji Temple 正蓮寺大日堂 |
| 6 | Hon-do of Raiko-ji Temple 来迎寺本堂 | 32 | Yakusi-do of Zenko-ji Temple 善光寺薬師堂 |
| 7 | Shin-do of Horyu-ji Temple 法隆寺新堂 | 33 | Hon-do of Joko-ji Temple 定光寺本堂 |
| 8 | Shaka-do of Zenpuku-in Temple 善福院釈迦堂 | 34 | Amida-do of Saigan-ji Temple 西願寺阿弥陀堂 |
| 9 | Miei-do of Murou-ji Temple 室生寺御影堂 | 35 | Kannon-do of Johou-ji Temple 成法寺観音堂 |
| 10 | Goma-do of Ishite-ji Temple 石手寺護摩堂 | 36 | Hon-do of Chikurin-ji Temple 竹林寺本堂 |
| 11 | Iwaya-do of Fudoin Temple 不動院岩屋堂 | 37 | Hon-do of Matuo-ji Temple 松尾寺本堂 |
| 12 | Hon-do of Jinkaku-ji Temple 神角寺本堂 | 38 | Hon-do of Entu-ji Temple 円通寺本堂 |
| 13 | Hon-do of Enpuku-ji Temple 圓福寺本堂 | 39 | Kongo-do of Engyo-ji Temple 円教寺金剛堂 |
| 14 | Kannon-do 観音堂 | 40 | Shaka-do of Onsho-ji Temple 遠照寺釈迦堂 |
| 15 | Jizou-do of Enmei-ji Temple 延命寺地蔵堂 | 41 | Kannon-do of Gotoku-ji Temple 護徳寺観音堂 |
| 16 | Yakusi-do of Johukuin 常福院薬師堂 | 42 | Amida-do of Uonuma Shrine 魚沼神社阿弥陀堂 |
| 17 | Shariden of Engaku-ji Temple 円覚寺舎利殿 | 43 | Yakusi-do of Isido-ji Temple 石堂寺薬師堂 |
| 18 | Entuden of Jotoku-ji Temple 常徳寺円通殿 | 44 | Kannon-do of Kiyomizu-dera Temple 清水寺観音堂 |
| 19 | Jizo-do of Shofuku-ji Temple 正福寺地蔵堂 | 45 | Godai-do of Zuigan-ji Temple 瑞巌寺五大堂 |
| 20 | Buddha Hall of Seihaku-ji Temple 清白寺仏殿 | 46 | Goma-do of Chomei-ji Temple 長命寺護摩堂 |
| 21 | Yakusi-do of Kichijo-ji Temple 吉祥寺薬師堂 | 47 | Buddha Hall of Tokei-jiTemple 旧東慶寺仏殿 |
| 22 | Kannon-do of Toshun-ji Temple 洞春寺観音堂 | 48 | Kaizan-do of Senpuku-ji Temple 泉福寺開山堂 |
| 23 | Kannon-do of Enman-ji Temple 円満寺観音堂 | 49 | Shoin-do of Manpuku-ji Temple 萬福寺松隠堂舎利殿 |
| 24 | Benten-do of Okunoin 奥之院弁天堂 | 50 | Daiohoden of Manpuku-ji Temple 萬福寺大雄宝殿 |
| 25 | Kannon-do of Kannon-ji Temple 観音寺観音堂 | 51 | Kaizan-do of Rinno-ji Temple 輪王寺開山堂 |
| 26 | Kannon-do of Kyushoo-ji Temple 旧松應寺観音堂 | 52 | Yakusi-do 薬師堂 |
(6) List of buildings that were the target subjects of this study. Table A3
Based on a survey report published by the Cultural Heritage Administration, Korea.
Table A3.
Analysis building list (Korea).
| No | Name | No | Name |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Bongjong-sa 鳳停寺大雄殿 | 23 | Sunun-sa 禪雲寺懺堂庵大雄殿 |
| 2 | Kaesim-sa 開心寺大雄殿 | 24 | Mihwang-sa 美黄寺大雄殿 |
| 3 | Heungkuk-sa 興國寺大雄殿 | 25 | Bulkab-sa 佛甲寺大雄殿 |
| 4 | Hwaom-sa 花巖寺極楽殿 | 26 | Yongju-sa 龍珠寺大雄寶殿 |
| 5 | Pomo-sa 梵魚寺大雄殿 | 27 | Bulhoe-sa 佛會寺大雄殿 |
| 6 | Kwanryongsa 觀龍寺大雄殿 | 28 | Daeheung-sa 大興寺千佛殿 |
| 7 | Chondung-sa 傳燈寺大雄寶殿 | 29 | Heungchun-sa 興天寺極楽寶殿 |
| 8 | Suta-sa 壽陀寺大寂光殿 | 30 | Hwagae-sa 華溪寺大雄殿 |
| 9 | Kaeam-sa 開巖寺大雄寶殿 | 31 | Sinheung-sa 新興寺大雄殿 |
| 10 | Sinhung-sa 新興寺大光殿 | 32 | Heungkuk-sa 興國寺大雄寶殿 |
| 11 | Sungbong-sa 威鳳寺普光明殿 | 33 | Sunam-sa 仙巖寺大雄殿 |
| 12 | Eunhae-sa 銀海寺百興庵極樂殿 | 34 | Bohyon-sa 普賢寺大雄殿 |
| 13 | Yulgok-sa 栗谷寺大雄殿 | 35 | Bokwang-sa 普光寺大雄寶殿 |
| 14 | Daebi-sa 大非寺大雄殿 | 36 | Sangwon-sa 上院寺大雄殿 |
| 15 | Naeso-sa 來蘇寺大雄寶殿 | 37 | Muwi-sa 無爲寺極楽殿 |
| 16 | Kurryong-sa 龜龍寺大雄殿 | 38 | Songkwang-sa 松廣寺下舍堂 |
| 17 | Unmun-sa 雲門寺大雄寶殿 | 39 | Kosan-sa 高山寺大雄殿 |
| 18 | Bulyong-sa 佛影寺大雄寶殿 | 40 | Kosanhyangkyo 高山鄕校大成殿 |
| 19 | Suknam-sa 石南寺大雄殿 | 41 | Popchu-sa 法住寺圓通寶殿 |
| 20 | Boduk-sa 報德寺極楽寶殿 | 42 | Bongkuk-sa 奉国寺大光明殿 |
| 21 | Donghwa-sa 桐華寺大雄殿 | 43 | Daeheung-sa 大興寺大光明殿 |
| 22 | Bongwon-sa 奉元寺大雄殿 |
(8) [11]
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Figure 1.
The Yingzao Fashi.
Figure 2.
Noyane (Hon-do of Honzen-ji Temple, 1641, Japan).
Table 1.
Basic Unit (Hijiki).
| Japan | Korea | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No | Hijiki Width | 10Times | No | Hijiki Width | 10Times | |
| 1 | 0.50 | 0.40 | 1 | 0.33 | 0.33 | |
| 2 | 0.53 | 0.42 | 2 | 0.36 | 0.33 | |
| 3 | 0.40 | 0.32 | 3 | 0.40 | 0.52 | |
| 4 | 0.40 | 0.35 | 4 | 0.38 | 0.43 | |
| 5 | 0.48 | 0.37 | 5 | 0.39 | 0.47 | |
| 6 | 0.46 | 0.31 | 6 | 0.39 | 0.39 | |
| 7 | 0.34 | 0.23 | 7 | 0.29 | 0.29 | |
| 8 | 0.30 | 0.29 | 8 | 0.34 | 0.33 | |
| 9 | 0.40 | 0.31 | 9 | 0.39 | 0.39 | |
| 10 | 0.36 | 0.25 | 10 | 0.45 | 0.33 | |
| 11 | 0.15 | 0.19 | 11 | 0.39 | 0.41 | |
| 12 | 0.24 | 0.39 | 12 | 0.35 | 0.50 | |
| 13 | 0.33 | 0.27 | 13 | 0.39 | 0.42 | |
| 14 | 0.46 | 0.31 | 14 | 0.39 | 0.53 | |
| 15 | 0.24 | 0.21 | 15 | 0.40 | 0.37 | |
| 16 | 0.26 | 0.22 | 16 | 0.30 | 0.36 | |
| 17 | 0.12 | 0.10 | 17 | 0.39 | 0.45 | |
| 18 | 0.48 | 0.34 | 18 | 0.35 | 0.49 | |
| 19 | 0.25 | 0.16 | 19 | 0.33 | 0.53 | |
| 20 | 0.18 | 0.14 | 20 | 0.33 | 0.44 | |
| 21 | 0.35 | 0.29 | 21 | None | 0.19 | |
| 22 | 0.26 | 0.21 | 22 | 0.29 | 0.33 | |
| 23 | 0.30 | 0.23 | 23 | 0.52 | 0.46 | |
| 24 | 0.22 | 0.19 | 24 | 0.34 | 0.36 | |
| 25 | 0.49 | 0.47 | 25 | 0.33 | 0.39 | |
| 26 | 0.43 | 0.38 | 26 | 0.33 | 0.38 | |
| 27 | 0.26 | 0.21 | 27 | 0.39 | 0.39 | |
| 28 | 0.20 | 0.16 | 28 | 0.40 | 0.35 | |
| 29 | 0.19 | 0.16 | 29 | 0.28 | 0.32 | |
| 30 | 0.21 | 0.20 | 30 | 0.28 | 0.34 | |
| 31 | 0.64 | 0.35 | 31 | 0.63 | 0.25 | |
| 32 | 0.22 | 0.19 | 32 | 0.29 | 0.39 | |
| 33 | 0.28 | 0.21 | 33 | 0.33 | 0.38 | |
| 34 | 0.24 | 0.20 | 34 | 0.33 | 0.44 | |
| 35 | 0.34 | 0.26 | 35 | 0.30 | 0.53 | |
| 36 | 0.38 | 0.29 | 36 | 0.32 | 0.51 | |
| 37 | 0.26 | 0.27 | 37 | 0.48 | 0.23 | |
| 38 | 0.26 | 0.22 | 38 | 0.35 | 0.21 | |
| 39 | 0.20 | 0.17 | 39 | 0.40 | 0.23 | |
| 40 | 0.32 | 0.27 | 40 | 0.37 | 0.19 | |
| 41 | 0.28 | 0.20 | 41 | 0.34 | 0.39 | |
| 42 | 0.25 | 0.18 | 42 | 0.30 | 0.21 | |
| 43 | 0.19 | 0.16 | 43 | 0.33 | 0.35 | |
| 44 | 0.28 | 0.23 | ||||
| 45 | 0.35 | 0.27 | ||||
| 46 | 0.30 | 0.20 | ||||
| 47 | 0.20 | 0.17 | More than 90% | |||
| 48 | 0.16 | 0.17 | ||||
| 49 | 0.31 | 0.27 | 80–89％ | |||
| 50 | 0.62 | 0.45 | ||||
| 51 | 0.42 | 0.31 | 70–79％ | |||
| 52 | 0.47 | 0.35 | ||||
The shaded area distinguishes the approximation ratio according to the intensity of the color. Unit: Shaku (尺).
Table 2.
Content and Comparative Analysis of Yingzao Fashi (Diameter of a column).
| Japan | Korea | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No | Diameter of a column | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 | No | Diameter of a column | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 |
| 1 | 1.17 | 1.67 | 1.71 | 1.75 | 1.79 | 1 | 1.65 | 1.37 | 1.40 | 1.44 | 1.47 |
| 2 | 0.82 | 1.76 | 1.81 | 1.85 | 1.89 | 2 | 1.32 | 1.37 | 1.40 | 1.44 | 1.47 |
| 3 | 1.07 | 1.34 | 1.38 | 1.41 | 1.44 | 3 | 1.88 | 2.18 | 2.24 | 2.29 | 2.34 |
| 4 | 1.06 | 1.48 | 1.51 | 1.55 | 1.58 | 4 | 1.74 | 1.79 | 1.83 | 1.88 | 1.92 |
| 5 | 1.15 | 1.54 | 1.58 | 1.61 | 1.65 | 5 | 1.78 | 1.96 | 2.01 | 2.05 | 2.10 |
| 6 | 0.90 | 1.32 | 1.35 | 1.38 | 1.41 | 6 | 1.31 | 1.65 | 1.69 | 1.73 | 1.77 |
| 7 | 0.44 | 0.97 | 0.99 | 1.02 | 1.04 | 7 | 1.70 | 1.23 | 1.26 | 1.29 | 1.32 |
| 8 | 0.81 | 1.20 | 1.23 | 1.26 | 1.29 | 8 | 1.38 | 1.37 | 1.40 | 1.44 | 1.47 |
| 9 | 0.79 | 1.29 | 1.32 | 1.36 | 1.39 | 9 | 1.95 | 1.65 | 1.69 | 1.73 | 1.77 |
| 10 | 0.42 | 1.06 | 1.09 | 1.11 | 1.14 | 10 | 2.10 | 1.40 | 1.43 | 1.47 | 1.50 |
| 10 | 0.32 | 1.06 | 1.09 | 1.11 | 1.14 | 11 | 1.77 | 1.71 | 1.75 | 1.79 | 1.83 |
| 11 | 0.56 | 0.78 | 0.80 | 0.82 | 0.84 | 12 | 1.45 | 2.11 | 2.16 | 2.21 | 2.27 |
| 12 | 0.44 | 1.62 | 1.66 | 1.69 | 1.73 | 13 | 1.67 | 1.76 | 1.81 | 1.85 | 1.89 |
| 13 | 0.74 | 1.15 | 1.18 | 1.20 | 1.23 | 14 | 1.48 | 2.21 | 2.26 | 2.32 | 2.37 |
| 14 | 1.00 | 1.29 | 1.32 | 1.36 | 1.39 | 15 | 1.54 | 1.57 | 1.61 | 1.65 | 1.68 |
| 15 | 0.78 | 0.90 | 0.92 | 0.94 | 0.96 | 16 | 1.73 | 1.51 | 1.55 | 1.58 | 1.62 |
| 16 | 0.90 | 0.94 | 0.96 | 0.98 | 1.01 | 17 | 2.00 | 1.90 | 1.95 | 1.99 | 2.04 |
| 17 | 0.60 | 0.42 | 0.43 | 0.44 | 0.45 | 18 | 1.71 | 2.07 | 2.12 | 2.17 | 2.22 |
| 18 | 0.73 | 1.43 | 1.46 | 1.50 | 1.53 | 19 | 1.62 | 2.21 | 2.26 | 2.32 | 2.37 |
| 19 | 0.83 | 0.67 | 0.69 | 0.70 | 0.72 | 20 | 1.45 | 1.85 | 1.89 | 1.94 | 1.98 |
| 20 | 0.60 | 0.59 | 0.60 | 0.62 | 0.63 | 21 | 1.88 | 0.81 | 0.83 | 0.85 | 0.87 |
| 21 | 1.00 | 1.23 | 1.26 | 1.29 | 1.32 | 22 | 1.23 | 1.37 | 1.40 | 1.44 | 1.47 |
| 22 | 1.10 | 0.90 | 0.92 | 0.94 | 0.96 | 23 | 1.61 | 1.94 | 1.99 | 2.03 | 2.08 |
| 23 | 0.80 | 0.98 | 1.00 | 1.03 | 1.05 | 24 | 1.81 | 1.51 | 1.55 | 1.58 | 1.62 |
| 24 | 0.86 | 0.81 | 0.83 | 0.85 | 0.87 | 25 | 1.80 | 1.62 | 1.66 | 1.70 | 1.74 |
| 25 | 1.30 | 1.96 | 2.01 | 2.05 | 2.10 | 26 | 1.98 | 1.60 | 1.63 | 1.67 | 1.71 |
| 26 | 1.20 | 1.60 | 1.64 | 1.68 | 1.72 | 27 | 1.45 | 1.65 | 1.69 | 1.73 | 1.77 |
| 27 | 0.87 | 0.87 | 0.89 | 0.91 | 0.93 | 28 | 1.25 | 1.48 | 1.52 | 1.55 | 1.59 |
| 28 | 0.70 | 0.67 | 0.68 | 0.70 | 0.71 | 29 | 1.03 | 1.34 | 1.38 | 1.41 | 1.44 |
| 29 | 0.65 | 0.66 | 0.67 | 0.69 | 0.70 | 30 | 0.99 | 1.43 | 1.46 | 1.50 | 1.53 |
| 30 | 0.98 | 0.84 | 0.86 | 0.88 | 0.90 | 31 | 2.18 | 1.04 | 1.06 | 1.09 | 1.11 |
| 31 | 0.95 | 1.47 | 1.51 | 1.54 | 1.58 | 32 | 0.96 | 1.62 | 1.66 | 1.70 | 1.74 |
| 32 | 0.80 | 0.79 | 0.80 | 0.82 | 0.84 | 33 | 1.89 | 1.60 | 1.63 | 1.67 | 1.71 |
| 33 | 0.80 | 0.90 | 0.92 | 0.94 | 0.96 | 34 | 1.15 | 1.85 | 1.89 | 1.94 | 1.98 |
| 34 | 0.90 | 0.84 | 0.86 | 0.88 | 0.90 | 35 | 1.34 | 2.21 | 2.26 | 2.32 | 2.37 |
| 35 | 0.88 | 1.11 | 1.14 | 1.16 | 1.19 | 36 | 1.24 | 2.13 | 2.18 | 2.23 | 2.28 |
| 36 | 0.97 | 1.20 | 1.23 | 1.26 | 1.29 | 37 | 1.25 | 0.95 | 0.97 | 1.00 | 1.02 |
| 37 | 0.84 | 1.15 | 1.17 | 1.20 | 1.23 | 38 | 1.05 | 0.90 | 0.92 | 0.94 | 0.96 |
| 38 | 1.00 | 0.92 | 0.95 | 0.97 | 0.99 | 39 | 1.00 | 0.95 | 0.97 | 1.00 | 1.02 |
| 39 | 0.45 | 0.73 | 0.75 | 0.76 | 0.78 | 40 | 1.49 | 0.81 | 0.83 | 0.85 | 0.87 |
| 40 | 0.86 | 1.12 | 1.15 | 1.17 | 1.20 | 41 | 1.34 | 1.65 | 1.69 | 1.73 | 1.77 |
| 41 | 0.84 | 0.84 | 0.86 | 0.88 | 0.90 | 42 | 1.41 | 0.87 | 0.89 | 0.91 | 0.93 |
| 42 | 0.70 | 0.76 | 0.77 | 0.79 | 0.81 | 43 | 1.13 | 1.46 | 1.49 | 1.53 | 1.56 |
| 43 | 0.68 | 0.67 | 0.68 | 0.70 | 0.71 | ||||||
| 44 | 0.85 | 0.98 | 1.00 | 1.03 | 1.05 | ||||||
| 45 | 0.97 | 1.12 | 1.15 | 1.17 | 1.20 | ||||||
| 46 | 0.62 | 0.84 | 0.86 | 0.88 | 0.90 | ||||||
| 47 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 0.72 | 0.73 | 0.75 | More than 90% | |||||
| 48 | 0.60 | 0.70 | 0.72 | 0.73 | 0.75 | ||||||
| 49 | 1.06 | 1.13 | 1.15 | 1.18 | 1.21 | 80–89％ | |||||
| 50 | 1.50 | 1.88 | 1.92 | 1.97 | 2.01 | ||||||
| 51 | 1.00 | 1.31 | 1.34 | 1.37 | 1.41 | 70–79％ | |||||
| 52 | 0.83 | 1.49 | 1.52 | 1.56 | 1.59 | ||||||
The shaded area distinguishes the approximation ratio according to the intensity of the color. Unit: Shaku (尺).
Table 3.
Content and Comparative Analysis of Yingzao Fashi (Kasira-nuki).
| Japan | Korea | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No | Kasiranuki Height | 30 | Width | 20 | No | Kasiranuki Height | 30 | Width | 20 |
| 1 | 0.68 | 1.19 | 0.50 | 0.79 | 1 | 1.30 | 0.98 | 0.85 | 0.65 |
| 2 | None | 1.26 | None | 0.84 | 2 | 0.91 | 0.98 | 0.73 | 0.65 |
| 3 | 0.60 | 0.96 | 0.38 | 0.64 | 3 | 1.29 | 1.56 | 1.09 | 1.04 |
| 4 | 0.55 | 1.06 | 0.33 | 0.70 | 4 | 0.92 | 1.28 | 0.59 | 0.85 |
| 5 | 0.59 | 1.10 | 0.35 | 0.73 | 5 | 1.41 | 1.40 | 0.69 | 0.93 |
| 6 | None | 0.94 | None | 0.63 | 6 | 1.00 | 1.18 | 0.60 | 0.79 |
| 7 | 0.36 | 0.69 | 0.30 | 0.46 | 7 | 1.16 | 0.88 | 0.83 | 0.59 |
| 8 | 0.53 | 0.86 | 0.38 | 0.57 | 8 | None | 0.98 | None | 0.65 |
| 9 | 0.46 | 0.92 | 0.27 | 0.62 | 9 | 1.27 | 1.18 | 1.18 | 0.79 |
| 10 | 0.42 | 0.76 | 0.36 | 0.51 | 10 | 1.40 | 1.00 | 0.78 | 0.67 |
| 11 | 0.48 | 0.56 | None | 0.37 | 11 | 1.08 | 1.22 | 0.80 | 0.81 |
| 12 | 0.88 | 1.16 | 0.52 | 0.77 | 12 | 1.01 | 1.51 | 0.71 | 1.01 |
| 13 | 0.43 | 0.82 | 0.33 | 0.55 | 13 | 1.17 | 1.26 | 0.75 | 0.84 |
| 14 | None | 0.92 | None | 0.62 | 14 | 1.00 | 1.58 | 0.58 | 1.05 |
| 15 | 0.70 | 0.64 | 0.36 | 0.43 | 15 | 1.27 | 1.12 | 0.92 | 0.75 |
| 16 | 0.37 | 0.67 | 0.69 | 0.45 | 16 | 0.92 | 1.08 | 0.34 | 0.72 |
| 17 | 0.34 | 0.30 | 0.21 | 0.20 | 17 | 1.55 | 1.36 | 0.99 | 0.91 |
| 18 | 0.48 | 1.02 | 0.24 | 0.68 | 18 | 1.23 | 1.48 | 0.69 | 0.99 |
| 19 | 0.84 | 0.48 | 0.48 | 0.32 | 19 | 0.89 | 1.58 | 0.63 | 1.05 |
| 20 | 0.50 | 0.42 | 0.27 | 0.28 | 20 | 1.14 | 1.32 | None | 0.88 |
| 21 | 0.45 | 0.88 | 0.77 | 0.59 | 21 | None | 0.58 | None | 0.39 |
| 22 | 0.62 | 0.64 | 0.42 | 0.43 | 22 | 0.69 | 0.98 | 0.59 | 0.65 |
| 23 | 0.66 | 0.70 | 0.35 | 0.47 | 23 | 0.94 | 1.39 | 0.72 | 0.92 |
| 24 | 0.57 | 0.58 | 0.36 | 0.39 | 24 | 0.99 | 1.08 | 0.74 | 0.72 |
| 25 | 0.49 | 1.40 | 0.62 | 0.93 | 25 | 0.98 | 1.16 | 0.48 | 0.77 |
| 26 | 0.90 | 1.15 | 0.60 | 0.76 | 26 | 0.99 | 1.14 | 0.69 | 0.76 |
| 27 | 0.68 | 0.62 | 0.40 | 0.41 | 27 | 1.00 | 1.18 | 0.88 | 0.79 |
| 28 | 0.68 | 0.48 | 0.35 | 0.32 | 28 | 1.00 | 1.06 | 0.83 | 0.71 |
| 29 | 0.51 | 0.47 | 0.38 | 0.31 | 29 | 0.77 | 0.96 | 0.62 | 0.64 |
| 30 | 0.72 | 0.60 | 0.35 | 0.40 | 30 | 0.67 | 1.02 | 0.85 | 0.68 |
| 31 | 0.56 | 1.05 | 0.32 | 0.70 | 31 | None | 0.74 | None | 0.49 |
| 32 | 0.65 | 0.56 | 0.30 | 0.37 | 32 | 0.75 | 1.16 | 0.79 | 0.77 |
| 33 | 0.64 | 0.64 | 0.37 | 0.43 | 33 | 0.79 | 1.14 | 1.18 | 0.76 |
| 34 | 0.70 | 0.60 | 0.40 | 0.40 | 34 | 0.80 | 1.32 | 0.67 | 0.88 |
| 35 | 0.73 | 0.79 | None | 0.53 | 35 | None | 1.58 | None | 1.05 |
| 36 | 0.82 | 0.86 | 0.53 | 0.57 | 36 | 0.97 | 1.52 | 0.58 | 1.01 |
| 37 | 0.61 | 0.82 | 0.40 | 0.55 | 37 | None | 0.68 | None | 0.45 |
| 38 | 0.78 | 0.66 | 0.36 | 0.44 | 38 | 0.54 | 0.64 | 0.33 | 0.43 |
| 39 | 0.42 | 0.52 | 0.22 | 0.35 | 39 | None | 0.68 | None | 0.45 |
| 40 | 0.55 | 0.80 | 0.35 | 0.53 | 40 | None | 0.58 | None | 0.39 |
| 41 | 0.62 | 0.60 | 0.37 | 0.40 | 41 | 1.03 | 1.18 | 0.79 | 0.79 |
| 42 | 0.56 | 0.54 | 0.35 | 0.36 | 42 | None | 0.62 | None | 0.41 |
| 43 | 0.52 | 0.48 | 0.36 | 0.32 | 43 | 0.89 | 1.04 | 0.33 | 0.69 |
| 44 | 0.90 | 0.70 | 0.40 | 0.47 | |||||
| 45 | 0.66 | 0.80 | 0.37 | 0.53 | |||||
| 46 | 0.17 | 0.60 | 0.37 | 0.40 | |||||
| 47 | 0.56 | 0.50 | 0.34 | 0.33 | More than 90% | ||||
| 48 | 0.42 | 0.50 | 0.31 | 0.33 | |||||
| 49 | 0.89 | 0.81 | 0.39 | 0.54 | 80–89％ | ||||
| 50 | 1.19 | 1.34 | 0.77 | 0.89 | |||||
| 51 | 0.66 | 0.94 | 0.33 | 0.62 | 70–79％ | ||||
| 52 | 0.50 | 1.06 | 0.58 | 0.71 | |||||
The shaded area distinguishes the approximation ratio according to the intensity of the color. Unit: Shaku (尺).
Table 4.
Content and Comparative Analysis of Yingzao Fashi (Daito).
| Japan | Korea | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No | Daito Height | 20 | Width | 32 | Length | 32 | No | Daito Height | 20 | Width | 32 | Length | 32 |
| 1 | 0.92 | 0.79 | 1.35 | 1.27 | 1.32 | 1.27 | 1 | 0.72 | 0.65 | 1.20 | 1.05 | 1.20 | 1.05 |
| 2 | None | 0.84 | None | 1.34 | None | 1.34 | 2 | 0.78 | 0.65 | 1.08 | 1.05 | 1.08 | 1.05 |
| 3 | 0.61 | 0.64 | 1.10 | 1.02 | 1.10 | 1.02 | 3 | 0.96 | 1.04 | 1.30 | 1.66 | 1.28 | 1.66 |
| 4 | 0.77 | 0.70 | 1.24 | 1.13 | 1.23 | 1.13 | 4 | 0.59 | 0.85 | 1.15 | 1.37 | 1.28 | 1.37 |
| 5 | 0.80 | 0.73 | 1.17 | 1.17 | 1.16 | 1.17 | 5 | 0.59 | 0.93 | 1.32 | 1.49 | 1.35 | 1.49 |
| 6 | 0.60 | 0.63 | 1.02 | 1.00 | 1.02 | 1.00 | 6 | 0.66 | 0.79 | 1.26 | 1.26 | 1.27 | 1.26 |
| 7 | None | 0.46 | None | 0.74 | None | 0.74 | 7 | 0.49 | 0.59 | 1.19 | 0.94 | 1.20 | 0.94 |
| 8 | 0.52 | 0.57 | 0.96 | 0.92 | 0.95 | 0.92 | 8 | 0.92 | 0.65 | 1.22 | 1.05 | 1.22 | 1.05 |
| 9 | 0.63 | 0.62 | 0.95 | 0.99 | 0.93 | 0.99 | 9 | 0.89 | 0.79 | 1.48 | 1.26 | 1.48 | 1.26 |
| 10 | None | 0.51 | None | 0.81 | None | 0.81 | 10 | 0.66 | 0.67 | 1.64 | 1.07 | 1.64 | 1.07 |
| 11 | None | 0.37 | None | 0.60 | None | 0.60 | 11 | 0.77 | 0.81 | 1.45 | 1.30 | 1.59 | 1.30 |
| 12 | 0.96 | 0.77 | 0.68 | 1.23 | 1.18 | 1.23 | 12 | 0.61 | 1.01 | 1.22 | 1.61 | 1.22 | 1.61 |
| 13 | 0.54 | 0.55 | 0.80 | 0.87 | 0.80 | 0.87 | 13 | 0.73 | 0.84 | 1.30 | 1.34 | 1.38 | 1.34 |
| 14 | None | 0.62 | None | 0.99 | None | 0.99 | 14 | 0.59 | 1.05 | 1.38 | 1.69 | 1.51 | 1.69 |
| 15 | 0.50 | 0.43 | 0.76 | 0.68 | 0.74 | 0.68 | 15 | 0.49 | 0.75 | 1.19 | 1.20 | 1.21 | 1.20 |
| 16 | 0.49 | 0.45 | 0.85 | 0.71 | 0.57 | 0.71 | 16 | 0.67 | 0.72 | 1.66 | 1.15 | 1.65 | 1.15 |
| 17 | 0.27 | 0.20 | 0.38 | 0.32 | 0.37 | 0.32 | 17 | 0.88 | 0.91 | 1.46 | 1.45 | 1.56 | 1.45 |
| 18 | 0.13 | 0.68 | 0.19 | 1.09 | 0.19 | 1.09 | 18 | 0.67 | 0.99 | 1.22 | 1.58 | 1.24 | 1.58 |
| 19 | 0.40 | 0.32 | 0.75 | 0.51 | 0.76 | 0.51 | 19 | 0.63 | 1.05 | 1.23 | 1.69 | 1.27 | 1.69 |
| 20 | 0.29 | 0.28 | 0.60 | 0.45 | 0.59 | 0.45 | 20 | 0.83 | 0.88 | 1.19 | 1.41 | 1.38 | 1.41 |
| 21 | 0.61 | 0.59 | 1.05 | 0.94 | 1.03 | 0.94 | 21 | None | 0.39 | None | 0.62 | None | 0.62 |
| 22 | 0.46 | 0.43 | 0.82 | 0.68 | 0.82 | 0.68 | 22 | 0.59 | 0.65 | 1.19 | 1.05 | 1.18 | 1.05 |
| 23 | 0.43 | 0.47 | 0.80 | 0.75 | 0.80 | 0.75 | 23 | 0.64 | 0.92 | 1.38 | 1.48 | 1.38 | 1.48 |
| 24 | 0.39 | 0.39 | 0.70 | 0.62 | 0.70 | 0.62 | 24 | 0.64 | 0.72 | 1.29 | 1.15 | 1.27 | 1.15 |
| 25 | None | 0.93 | None | 1.49 | None | 1.49 | 25 | 0.65 | 0.77 | 1.19 | 1.24 | 1.21 | 1.24 |
| 26 | 0.65 | 0.76 | 1.30 | 1.22 | 1.30 | 1.22 | 26 | 0.65 | 0.76 | 1.30 | 1.22 | 1.32 | 1.22 |
| 27 | 0.46 | 0.41 | 0.80 | 0.66 | 0.78 | 0.66 | 27 | 0.56 | 0.79 | 1.37 | 1.26 | 1.40 | 1.26 |
| 28 | 0.36 | 0.32 | 0.64 | 0.51 | 0.63 | 0.51 | 28 | 0.73 | 0.71 | 1.71 | 1.13 | 1.63 | 1.13 |
| 29 | 0.40 | 0.31 | 0.67 | 0.50 | 0.67 | 0.50 | 29 | 0.46 | 0.64 | 1.00 | 1.02 | 1.00 | 1.02 |
| 30 | 0.39 | 0.40 | 0.74 | 0.64 | 0.74 | 0.64 | 30 | 0.67 | 0.68 | 1.09 | 1.09 | 1.09 | 1.09 |
| 31 | None | 0.70 | None | 1.12 | None | 1.12 | 31 | 0.72 | 0.49 | 1.47 | 0.79 | 1.47 | 0.79 |
| 32 | 0.39 | 0.37 | 0.66 | 0.60 | 0.66 | 0.60 | 32 | 0.38 | 0.77 | 1.18 | 1.24 | 1.18 | 1.24 |
| 33 | 0.48 | 0.43 | 0.85 | 0.68 | 0.85 | 0.68 | 33 | 0.67 | 0.76 | 1.48 | 1.22 | 1.48 | 1.22 |
| 34 | 0.46 | 0.40 | 0.74 | 0.64 | 0.74 | 0.64 | 34 | 0.65 | 0.88 | 1.17 | 1.41 | 1.18 | 1.41 |
| 35 | 0.58 | 0.53 | 0.90 | 0.84 | 0.90 | 0.84 | 35 | 0.48 | 1.05 | 1.23 | 1.69 | 1.23 | 1.69 |
| 36 | 0.62 | 0.57 | 1.13 | 0.92 | 1.10 | 0.92 | 36 | 0.46 | 1.01 | 1.28 | 1.62 | 1.28 | 1.62 |
| 37 | 0.55 | 0.55 | 0.78 | 0.87 | 0.78 | 0.87 | 37 | 1.61 | 0.45 | 0.52 | 0.73 | 0.52 | 0.73 |
| 38 | 0.50 | 0.44 | 0.84 | 0.70 | 0.84 | 0.70 | 38 | 1.25 | 0.43 | 0.50 | 0.68 | 0.50 | 0.68 |
| 39 | 0.37 | 0.35 | 0.64 | 0.55 | 0.64 | 0.55 | 39 | 0.97 | 0.45 | 0.48 | 0.73 | 0.48 | 0.73 |
| 40 | 0.50 | 0.53 | 1.00 | 0.85 | 1.00 | 0.85 | 40 | 1.30 | 0.39 | 0.52 | 0.62 | 0.52 | 0.62 |
| 41 | 0.52 | 0.40 | 0.84 | 0.64 | 0.84 | 0.64 | 41 | 0.79 | 0.79 | 1.32 | 1.26 | 1.32 | 1.26 |
| 42 | 0.36 | 0.36 | 0.76 | 0.58 | 0.71 | 0.58 | 42 | 1.03 | 0.41 | 0.54 | 0.66 | 0.54 | 0.66 |
| 43 | 0.34 | 0.32 | 0.60 | 0.51 | 0.60 | 0.51 | 43 | 0.50 | 0.69 | 1.42 | 1.11 | 1.42 | 1.11 |
| 44 | 0.50 | 0.47 | 0.85 | 0.75 | 0.85 | 0.75 | |||||||
| 45 | 0.53 | 0.53 | 1.00 | 0.85 | 1.00 | 0.85 | |||||||
| 46 | 0.49 | 0.40 | 0.83 | 0.64 | 0.83 | 0.64 | |||||||
| 47 | 0.37 | 0.33 | 0.62 | 0.53 | 0.62 | 0.53 | More than 90% | ||||||
| 48 | 0.31 | 0.33 | 0.54 | 0.53 | 0.55 | 0.53 | |||||||
| 49 | 0.53 | 0.54 | 0.87 | 0.86 | 0.87 | 0.86 | 80–89％ | ||||||
| 50 | 0.65 | 0.89 | 1.50 | 1.43 | 1.48 | 1.43 | |||||||
| 51 | 0.72 | 0.62 | 1.16 | 1.00 | 1.19 | 1.00 | 70–79％ | ||||||
| 52 | None | 0.71 | None | 1.13 | None | 1.13 | |||||||
The shaded area distinguishes the approximation ratio according to the intensity of the color. Unit: Shaku (尺).
Table 5.
Content and Comparative Analysis of Yingzao Fashi (Makito).
| Japan | Korea | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No | Makito Height | 10 | Width | 16 | Length | 16 | No | Makito Height | 10 | Width | 16 | Length | 16 |
| 1 | 0.79 | 0.40 | 0.85 | 0.63 | 0.82 | 0.63 | 1 | 0.40 | 0.33 | 0.60 | 0.52 | 0.60 | 0.52 |
| 2 | None | 0.42 | None | 0.67 | None | 0.67 | 2 | 0.29 | 0.33 | 0.60 | 0.52 | 0.59 | 0.52 |
| 3 | 0.45 | 0.32 | 0.76 | 0.51 | 0.93 | 0.51 | 3 | 0.30 | 0.52 | 0.65 | 0.83 | 0.64 | 0.83 |
| 4 | 0.39 | 0.35 | 0.58 | 0.56 | 0.58 | 0.56 | 4 | 0.29 | 0.43 | 0.60 | 0.68 | 0.60 | 0.68 |
| 5 | 0.60 | 0.37 | 0.86 | 0.59 | 0.76 | 0.59 | 5 | 0.40 | 0.47 | 0.59 | 0.75 | 0.61 | 0.75 |
| 6 | None | 0.31 | None | 0.50 | None | 0.50 | 6 | 0.39 | 0.39 | 0.60 | 0.63 | 0.62 | 0.63 |
| 7 | None | 0.23 | None | 0.37 | None | 0.37 | 7 | 0.29 | 0.29 | 0.50 | 0.47 | 0.52 | 0.47 |
| 8 | 0.39 | 0.29 | 0.49 | 0.46 | 0.48 | 0.46 | 8 | 0.29 | 0.33 | 0.56 | 0.52 | 0.56 | 0.52 |
| 9 | 0.42 | 0.31 | 0.63 | 0.49 | 0.63 | 0.49 | 9 | 0.34 | 0.39 | 0.59 | 0.63 | 0.59 | 0.63 |
| 10 | None | 0.25 | None | 0.41 | None | 0.41 | 10 | 0.46 | 0.33 | 0.66 | 0.53 | 0.66 | 0.53 |
| 11 | None | 0.19 | None | 0.30 | None | 0.30 | 11 | 0.29 | 0.41 | 0.59 | 0.65 | 0.58 | 0.65 |
| 12 | 0.63 | 0.39 | 0.55 | 0.62 | 0.70 | 0.62 | 12 | 0.20 | 0.50 | 0.57 | 0.81 | 0.58 | 0.81 |
| 13 | 0.37 | 0.27 | 0.63 | 0.44 | 0.63 | 0.44 | 13 | 0.41 | 0.42 | 0.58 | 0.67 | 0.62 | 0.67 |
| 14 | None | 0.31 | None | 0.49 | None | 0.49 | 14 | 0.39 | 0.53 | 0.60 | 0.84 | 0.62 | 0.84 |
| 15 | 0.31 | 0.21 | 0.48 | 0.34 | 0.38 | 0.34 | 15 | 0.30 | 0.37 | 0.61 | 0.60 | 0.62 | 0.60 |
| 16 | 0.31 | 0.22 | 0.38 | 0.36 | 0.38 | 0.36 | 16 | 0.37 | 0.36 | 0.60 | 0.58 | 0.60 | 0.58 |
| 17 | 0.16 | 0.10 | 0.22 | 0.16 | 0.24 | 0.16 | 17 | 0.34 | 0.45 | 0.64 | 0.73 | 0.64 | 0.73 |
| 18 | 0.32 | 0.34 | 0.12 | 0.54 | 0.15 | 0.54 | 18 | 0.39 | 0.49 | 0.56 | 0.79 | 0.57 | 0.79 |
| 19 | 0.25 | 0.16 | 0.41 | 0.26 | 0.46 | 0.26 | 19 | 0.29 | 0.53 | 0.52 | 0.84 | 0.55 | 0.84 |
| 20 | 0.23 | 0.14 | 0.33 | 0.22 | 0.29 | 0.22 | 20 | 0.27 | 0.44 | 0.54 | 0.70 | 0.53 | 0.70 |
| 21 | 0.42 | 0.29 | 0.68 | 0.47 | 0.52 | 0.47 | 21 | None | 0.19 | None | 0.31 | None | 0.31 |
| 22 | 0.32 | 0.21 | 0.40 | 0.34 | 0.48 | 0.34 | 22 | 0.30 | 0.33 | 0.51 | 0.52 | 0.51 | 0.52 |
| 23 | 0.33 | 0.23 | 0.41 | 0.37 | 0.59 | 0.37 | 23 | 0.49 | 0.46 | 0.77 | 0.74 | 0.71 | 0.74 |
| 24 | 0.29 | 0.19 | 0.45 | 0.31 | 0.22 | 0.31 | 24 | 0.30 | 0.36 | 0.56 | 0.58 | 0.55 | 0.58 |
| 25 | None | 0.47 | None | 0.75 | None | 0.75 | 25 | 0.29 | 0.39 | 0.53 | 0.62 | 0.58 | 0.62 |
| 26 | 0.60 | 0.38 | 0.80 | 0.61 | 0.80 | 0.61 | 26 | 0.29 | 0.38 | 0.53 | 0.61 | 0.55 | 0.61 |
| 27 | 0.31 | 0.21 | 0.45 | 0.33 | 0.45 | 0.33 | 27 | 0.28 | 0.39 | 0.61 | 0.63 | 0.58 | 0.63 |
| 28 | 0.24 | 0.16 | 0.32 | 0.25 | 0.34 | 0.25 | 28 | 0.29 | 0.35 | 0.59 | 0.57 | 0.59 | 0.57 |
| 29 | 0.25 | 0.16 | 0.30 | 0.25 | 0.36 | 0.25 | 29 | 0.29 | 0.32 | 0.50 | 0.51 | 0.50 | 0.51 |
| 30 | 0.26 | 0.20 | 0.39 | 0.32 | 0.40 | 0.32 | 30 | 0.18 | 0.34 | 0.57 | 0.54 | 0.58 | 0.54 |
| 31 | None | 0.35 | None | 0.56 | None | 0.56 | 31 | 0.32 | 0.25 | 0.60 | 0.39 | 0.59 | 0.39 |
| 32 | 0.27 | 0.19 | 0.45 | 0.30 | 0.35 | 0.30 | 32 | 0.31 | 0.39 | 0.50 | 0.62 | 0.50 | 0.62 |
| 33 | 0.32 | 0.21 | 0.55 | 0.34 | 0.42 | 0.34 | 33 | 0.29 | 0.38 | 0.52 | 0.61 | 0.54 | 0.61 |
| 34 | 0.28 | 0.20 | 0.38 | 0.32 | 0.37 | 0.32 | 34 | 0.28 | 0.44 | 0.53 | 0.70 | 0.54 | 0.70 |
| 35 | 0.41 | 0.26 | 0.62 | 0.42 | 0.62 | 0.42 | 35 | 0.29 | 0.53 | 0.51 | 0.84 | 0.51 | 0.84 |
| 36 | 0.42 | 0.29 | 0.86 | 0.46 | 0.57 | 0.46 | 36 | 0.27 | 0.51 | 0.53 | 0.81 | 0.52 | 0.81 |
| 37 | 0.40 | 0.27 | 0.56 | 0.44 | 0.54 | 0.44 | 37 | 0.59 | 0.23 | 0.62 | 0.36 | 1.28 | 0.36 |
| 38 | 0.32 | 0.22 | 0.40 | 0.35 | 0.40 | 0.35 | 38 | 0.59 | 0.21 | 0.54 | 0.34 | 0.72 | 0.34 |
| 39 | 0.25 | 0.17 | 0.48 | 0.28 | 0.48 | 0.28 | 39 | 0.60 | 0.23 | 0.48 | 0.36 | 0.83 | 0.36 |
| 40 | 0.39 | 0.27 | 0.65 | 0.43 | 0.65 | 0.43 | 40 | 0.52 | 0.19 | 0.59 | 0.31 | 1.16 | 0.31 |
| 41 | 0.34 | 0.20 | 0.50 | 0.32 | 0.50 | 0.32 | 41 | 0.30 | 0.39 | 0.53 | 0.63 | 0.56 | 0.63 |
| 42 | 0.29 | 0.18 | 0.50 | 0.29 | 0.48 | 0.29 | 42 | 0.50 | 0.21 | 0.52 | 0.33 | 0.92 | 0.33 |
| 43 | 0.23 | 0.16 | 0.34 | 0.25 | 0.34 | 0.25 | 43 | 0.30 | 0.35 | 0.54 | 0.55 | 0.54 | 0.55 |
| 44 | 0.29 | 0.23 | 0.58 | 0.37 | 0.42 | 0.37 | |||||||
| 45 | 0.40 | 0.27 | 0.35 | 0.43 | 0.69 | 0.43 | |||||||
| 46 | None | 0.20 | None | 0.32 | None | 0.32 | |||||||
| 47 | 0.26 | 0.17 | 0.38 | 0.27 | 0.32 | 0.27 | More than 90% | ||||||
| 48 | 0.19 | 0.17 | 0.28 | 0.27 | 0.32 | 0.27 | |||||||
| 49 | 0.32 | 0.27 | 0.54 | 0.43 | 0.56 | 0.43 | 80–89％ | ||||||
| 50 | 0.54 | 0.45 | 1.13 | 0.71 | 1.13 | 0.71 | |||||||
| 51 | 0.37 | 0.31 | 0.68 | 0.50 | 0.68 | 0.50 | 70–79％ | ||||||
The shaded area distinguishes the approximation ratio according to the intensity of the color.
Table 6.
Content and Comparative Analysis of Yingzao Fashi (Taruki).
| Japan | Korea | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No | Taruki Height | 7 | 8 | Width | 7 | 8 | No | Taruki Diameter | 7 | 8 |
| 1 | 0.31 | 0.28 | 0.32 | 0.25 | 0.28 | 0.32 | 1 | 0.54 | 0.23 | 0.26 |
| 2 | 0.31 | 0.29 | 0.34 | 0.21 | 0.29 | 0.34 | 2 | 0.60 | 0.23 | 0.26 |
| 3 | 0.34 | 0.22 | 0.26 | 0.28 | 0.22 | 0.26 | 3 | 0.73 | 0.36 | 0.42 |
| 4 | 0.26 | 0.25 | 0.28 | 0.24 | 0.25 | 0.28 | 4 | 0.62 | 0.30 | 0.34 |
| 5 | 0.31 | 0.26 | 0.29 | 0.26 | 0.26 | 0.29 | 5 | 0.79 | 0.33 | 0.37 |
| 6 | 0.27 | 0.22 | 0.25 | 0.17 | 0.22 | 0.25 | 6 | 0.56 | 0.28 | 0.31 |
| 7 | 0.13 | 0.16 | 0.19 | 0.23 | 0.16 | 0.19 | 7 | 0.58 | 0.21 | 0.23 |
| 8 | 0.24 | 0.20 | 0.23 | 0.16 | 0.20 | 0.23 | 8 | None | 0.23 | 0.26 |
| 9 | 0.25 | 0.22 | 0.25 | 0.23 | 0.22 | 0.25 | 9 | 0.53 | 0.28 | 0.31 |
| 10 | 0.38 | 0.18 | 0.20 | 0.31 | 0.18 | 0.20 | 10 | 0.63 | 0.23 | 0.27 |
| 11 | 0.22 | 0.13 | 0.15 | 0.17 | 0.13 | 0.15 | 11 | 0.62 | 0.28 | 0.33 |
| 12 | 0.38 | 0.27 | 0.31 | 0.25 | 0.27 | 0.31 | 12 | 0.61 | 0.35 | 0.40 |
| 13 | 0.24 | 0.19 | 0.22 | 0.20 | 0.19 | 0.22 | 13 | 0.67 | 0.29 | 0.34 |
| 14 | 0.33 | 0.22 | 0.25 | 0.21 | 0.22 | 0.25 | 14 | 0.66 | 0.37 | 0.42 |
| 15 | 0.24 | 0.15 | 0.17 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.17 | 15 | 0.84 | 0.26 | 0.30 |
| 16 | 0.25 | 0.16 | 0.18 | 0.19 | 0.16 | 0.18 | 16 | 0.61 | 0.25 | 0.29 |
| 17 | 0.18 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 17 | 1.05 | 0.32 | 0.36 |
| 18 | 0.22 | 0.24 | 0.27 | 0.15 | 0.24 | 0.27 | 18 | 0.75 | 0.35 | 0.39 |
| 19 | 0.21 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 0.17 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 19 | 0.54 | 0.37 | 0.42 |
| 20 | 0.23 | 0.10 | 0.11 | 0.17 | 0.10 | 0.11 | 20 | 0.78 | 0.31 | 0.35 |
| 21 | None | 0.20 | 0.23 | 0.30 | 0.20 | 0.23 | 21 | None | 0.14 | 0.15 |
| 22 | 0.34 | 0.15 | 0.17 | 0.21 | 0.15 | 0.17 | 22 | 0.47 | 0.23 | 0.26 |
| 23 | 0.28 | 0.16 | 0.19 | 0.18 | 0.16 | 0.19 | 23 | 0.71 | 0.32 | 0.37 |
| 24 | 0.18 | 0.14 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.14 | 0.15 | 24 | 0.53 | 0.25 | 0.29 |
| 25 | 0.32 | 0.33 | 0.37 | 0.28 | 0.33 | 0.37 | 25 | 0.62 | 0.27 | 0.31 |
| 26 | None | 0.27 | 0.31 | None | 0.27 | 0.31 | 26 | 0.66 | 0.27 | 0.30 |
| 27 | 0.26 | 0.14 | 0.17 | 0.19 | 0.14 | 0.17 | 27 | 0.72 | 0.28 | 0.31 |
| 28 | 0.19 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 0.17 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 28 | 0.60 | 0.25 | 0.28 |
| 29 | 0.22 | 0.11 | 0.12 | 0.17 | 0.11 | 0.12 | 29 | 0.47 | 0.22 | 0.26 |
| 30 | 0.21 | 0.14 | 0.16 | 0.21 | 0.14 | 0.16 | 30 | 0.49 | 0.24 | 0.27 |
| 31 | 0.25 | 0.25 | 0.28 | 0.25 | 0.25 | 0.28 | 31 | None | 0.17 | 0.20 |
| 32 | 0.23 | 0.13 | 0.15 | 0.18 | 0.13 | 0.15 | 32 | 0.52 | 0.27 | 0.31 |
| 33 | 0.22 | 0.15 | 0.17 | 0.18 | 0.15 | 0.17 | 33 | 0.79 | 0.27 | 0.30 |
| 34 | 0.18 | 0.14 | 0.16 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.16 | 34 | 0.47 | 0.31 | 0.35 |
| 35 | 0.26 | 0.18 | 0.21 | 0.21 | 0.18 | 0.21 | 35 | 0.54 | 0.37 | 0.42 |
| 36 | 0.38 | 0.20 | 0.23 | 0.35 | 0.20 | 0.23 | 36 | 0.49 | 0.35 | 0.41 |
| 37 | 0.25 | 0.19 | 0.22 | 0.18 | 0.19 | 0.22 | 37 | 0.91 | 0.16 | 0.18 |
| 38 | 0.22 | 0.15 | 0.18 | 0.20 | 0.15 | 0.18 | 38 | 1.00 | 0.15 | 0.17 |
| 39 | 0.21 | 0.12 | 0.14 | 0.14 | 0.12 | 0.14 | 39 | 0.50 | 0.16 | 0.18 |
| 40 | 0.29 | 0.19 | 0.21 | 0.21 | 0.19 | 0.21 | 40 | 0.95 | 0.14 | 0.15 |
| 41 | 0.24 | 0.14 | 0.16 | 0.17 | 0.14 | 0.16 | 41 | 0.54 | 0.28 | 0.31 |
| 42 | 0.25 | 0.13 | 0.14 | 0.22 | 0.13 | 0.14 | 42 | 0.67 | 0.14 | 0.17 |
| 43 | 0.20 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 0.16 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 43 | 0.63 | 0.24 | 0.28 |
| 44 | 0.25 | 0.16 | 0.19 | 0.18 | 0.16 | 0.19 | ||||
| 45 | 0.28 | 0.19 | 0.21 | 0.19 | 0.19 | 0.21 | ||||
| 46 | 0.24 | 0.14 | 0.16 | 0.21 | 0.14 | 0.16 | ||||
| 47 | 0.19 | 0.12 | 0.13 | 0.11 | 0.12 | 0.13 | More than 90% | |||
| 48 | 0.23 | 0.12 | 0.13 | 0.13 | 0.12 | 0.13 | ||||
| 49 | 0.26 | 0.19 | 0.21 | 0.18 | 0.19 | 0.21 | 80–89％ | |||
| 50 | 0.30 | 0.31 | 0.36 | 0.33 | 0.31 | 0.36 | ||||
| 51 | 0.20 | 0.22 | 0.25 | 0.21 | 0.22 | 0.25 | 70–79％ | |||
| 52 | 0.36 | 0.25 | 0.28 | 0.28 | 0.25 | 0.28 | ||||
The shaded area distinguishes the approximation ratio according to the intensity of the color. Unit: Shaku (尺).
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MDPI and ACS Style
Kim, B. Using the Yingzao Fashi to Analyze Architectural Elements in Japanese and Korean Buildings: Comparing the Yingzao Fashi’s Specifications with the Dimensional Properties of Historic Buildings. Architecture 2025, 5, 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/architecture5030067
AMA Style
Kim B. Using the Yingzao Fashi to Analyze Architectural Elements in Japanese and Korean Buildings: Comparing the Yingzao Fashi’s Specifications with the Dimensional Properties of Historic Buildings. Architecture. 2025; 5(3):67. https://doi.org/10.3390/architecture5030067
Chicago/Turabian StyleKim, Byungjin. 2025. "Using the Yingzao Fashi to Analyze Architectural Elements in Japanese and Korean Buildings: Comparing the Yingzao Fashi’s Specifications with the Dimensional Properties of Historic Buildings" Architecture 5, no. 3: 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/architecture5030067
APA StyleKim, B. (2025). Using the Yingzao Fashi to Analyze Architectural Elements in Japanese and Korean Buildings: Comparing the Yingzao Fashi’s Specifications with the Dimensional Properties of Historic Buildings. Architecture, 5(3), 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/architecture5030067
