Sense of Belonging in a Time of Crisis: Mapping Out the Lived Cross-Cultural Experiences of International Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Abstract

This study investigates the cross-cultural experiences and evolving sense of belonging among international students during the COVID-19 pandemic at a large Midwestern U.S. university. Using a mixed-methods approach, we collected quantitative data through a Qualtrics survey and qualitative insights from in-depth interviews. Findings reveal that while students generally adapted to academic and social disruptions, they faced intensified challenges related to cultural isolation, mental health struggles, and immigration uncertainties. Resilience, individualized coping strategies, and shifts in their sense of belonging emerged as key themes. The study contributes practical and theoretical insights by identifying institutional strategies to strengthen cultural inclusion, mental health support, and student engagement during global crises. These findings inform future research, university policies, and support systems aimed at enhancing international students’ wellbeing and fostering more inclusive educational environments during times of uncertainty.

1. Introduction

International students studying and living in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic (2020–2021) faced a dual burden. While they encountered many of the same challenges as American students—such as abrupt transitions to online learning, social isolation, and academic disruptions—they also grappled with stressors uniquely tied to their international status. These additional challenges included language barriers, travel bans, visa uncertainties, financial insecurity, heightened concerns for family members abroad, and increased incidents of xenophobia and racial discrimination [1]. Such compounded difficulties made their adaptation to academic and social life far more complex and precarious. In contrast, while U.S. national students experienced significant hardships, they were less likely to encounter cross-cultural barriers, legal vulnerabilities, or transnational emotional strains that uniquely shaped international students’ experiences [2]. To better understand these compounded realities through the cross-cultural voices of international students, this study explores the impact of COVID-19 on their academic, social, and emotional lives at a Midwestern U.S. university, examines their coping strategies in response to pandemic-related challenges, and reflects on the resilience and sense of belonging they demonstrated during this period.

Globally, scholars have observed that international students studying overseas in COVID-stricken countries have become one of the hardest-hit groups [3]. Among the specific challenges reported were visa and travel restrictions, fears regarding the health and safety of family members in their home countries, anxieties surrounding U.S. immigration policies that threaten their continued enrollment, limited access to healthcare, experiences of isolation and discrimination, and a surge in Sinophobia and anti-Asian sentiment [4,5,6,7,8]. At the same time, studies have highlighted the agency and resilience demonstrated by international students, showing how they creatively adapted to uncertainties and shaped individualized paths through the crisis [3,9,10].

Nonetheless, the lived experiences of international students during the pandemic remain a complex and evolving research area. While many studies have addressed resilience and academic disruption, the critical dimension of sense of belonging—the extent to which students feel accepted, respected, and supported [11]—has received far less attention. Belonging is fundamental to mental health and student development, acting as a protective factor against depression and anxiety during crises. Understanding how the pandemic shaped international students’ sense of belonging provides vital insights into their socio-emotional wellbeing and highlights broader issues of institutional inclusivity and social cohesion. Given the pivotal role international students play in advancing academic excellence, research innovation, and campus diversity [12], it is imperative that institutions center their experiences during times of crisis. This study addresses these gaps by mapping the cross-cultural lived experiences and evolving sense of belonging of international students at a large Midwestern university, which enrolls over 9000 international students from 128 countries [13]. We seek to answer the following research questions through this study:

RQ1: How do international students evaluate their degree of adaptation to online emergency teaching, satisfaction with student support services, health and wellbeing, and feelings of belonging and engagement during COVID-19 at the university?

RQ2: How do students’ perceptions of their school experiences during COVID-19 vary by gender, race, socioeconomic status, grades, program focus (STEM/non-STEM), and academic achievement?

RQ3: What were their lived cross-cultural experiences at the university during the pandemic?

2. Materials and Methods

In this study, we utilized a design of partially mixed concurrent equal status [14], which considered the level of data mixing, time orientation, and emphasis of approaches. The decision to use this design was grounded in the study’s aim to gain both breadth and depth in understanding students’ experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. The approach involved collecting and analyzing quantitative and qualitative data separately before integrating the results for comparison and inference. The quantitative component offered generalizable insights into patterns across demographic and academic groups, while the qualitative component provided rich, contextualized accounts that elaborated on and nuanced these patterns. Both data collection and analysis occurred simultaneously, with equal importance given to addressing research questions, as the aim was to use triangulation.

2.1. Participants

2.1.1. Setting

This study was conducted at a large public research university in the Midwestern United States, which is home to over 9000 international students from 128 countries. The institution’s rural location, significant international STEM graduate enrollment (73% of participants), and regional policies—including the early relaxation of COVID-19 safety mandates—created a distinctive socio-academic landscape. These conditions magnified challenges such as social isolation, exposure to xenophobia, and gaps in culturally sensitive mental health support, while simultaneously fostering resilience through peer-led support networks among diverse student groups. By centering this setting, the study illuminates how institutional hybrid learning models, geographic remoteness, and shifting public health policies intersected to shape international students’ navigation of pandemic adversities. This contextual alignment directly supports the research objective of mapping nuanced cross-cultural lived experiences during crises.

2.1.2. Respondents’ Information

Table 1. Sociodemographic characteristics of participants.

Category	Sub-Category	N (%)	Sub-Category	N (%)
Gender	Male	54 (52.43%)	Female	49 (47.57%)
Race	Asian	75 (73.53%)	Non-Asian	27 (26.47%)
Social economic status (SES)	Low-SES	27 (29.03%)	Others	66 (70.97%)
Grade Level	Undergraduate	18 (17.14%)	Graduate	87 (82.86%)
GPA	High achieving	84 (80%)	Others	21 (20%)

presents the participants’ demographic information. Of the survey participants, 73.53% were Asian, and 82.86% were graduate students. Additionally, 80% of them were high-achieving students, which was defined as having a GPA of more than 3.5 on a scale of 4.0. The survey was distributed to 1200 eligible international students (graduate and undergraduate), yielding a response rate of 8.75% (105/1200). While low response rates are common in pandemic-era studies, we compared the demographic characteristics of respondents (e.g., 73.5% Asian, 82.86% graduate) to university-reported demographics (ISS, 2022) and found alignment with the broader international student population (e.g., 76% Asian, 85% graduate). This suggests reasonable representativeness despite limitations in generalizability.

2.2. Data Collection

To identify the significant and diverse aspects of the lived experiences of international students during the COVID-19 pandemic, a maximum variation sampling technique was used to recruit participants [15]. To be eligible for participation, individuals needed to meet the following criteria: (a) be 18 years or older and an international student, (b) have enrolled at the university before the summer semester of 2021, and (c) be pursuing an undergraduate or graduate degree. Participants were excluded if they (1) were domestic students (to prioritize international students’ cross-cultural challenges), (2) could not provide informed consent, or (3) reported no pandemic-related cultural struggles (qualitative phase). These criteria ensured a focus on the study’s core aim: mapping cross-cultural lived experiences during COVID-19.

2.2.1. Quantitative Data Collection

Participants eligible for the quantitative survey were required to meet the following criteria: (1) enrollment as international students (F-1/J-1 visa holders) at the university during the COVID-19 pandemic (Spring 2020–Spring 2022), (2) age of 18 years or older, (3) accessibility through university-administered email listservs or international student office databases, and (4) voluntary consent to participate in the Qualtrics survey. These criteria ensured alignment with the study’s focus on pandemic-era experiences while adhering to institutional data access protocols and ethical standards for voluntary participation. After obtaining approval from the University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB-2022–989), potential participants received a recruitment email containing the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Participants received a detailed consent form (via Qualtrics for surveys; verbally for interviews) outlining the study’s purpose, data usage, confidentiality measures, and their right to withdraw at any stage without penalty. Consent was confirmed digitally (for surveys) or recorded verbally (for interviews).

The email also invited them to complete a 15–20 min Qualtrics survey that collected demographic information and their experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Qualtrics survey (Qualtrics was chosen for its cross-cultural advantages: multilingual support, GDPR/IRB compliance, and adaptive branching logic. The survey included Likert-scale questions (validated instruments), open-ended prompts, and attention checks. It was distributed via university email listservs (N = 1200), with three reminders. Pilot testing refined phrasing for clarity. Invalid responses (<50% completion, failed attention checks) were excluded, yielding 105 valid surveys.) comprised 45 questions (see Supplementary File S1) assessing four domains: (1) adaptation to online learning (10 Likert-scale items), (2) satisfaction with university support services (12 items, including open-ended responses), (3) health and wellness (8 items), and (4) sense of belonging (15 items). Cronbach’s alpha for the scales ranged from 0.72 to 0.89, indicating acceptable internal consistency. Participants also completed demographic questions (e.g., gender, race, SES). The survey took 15–20 min to complete.

To encourage participation, respondents were given a chance to win one of twenty Amazon e-gift cards worth $15 upon survey completion. We ended up with 105 valid surveys. The sample size of 105 participants was determined through a combination of pragmatic and methodological considerations. Survey respondents received a debriefing message reiterating support resources and contact information for the research team. For the quantitative survey, we aimed for a 5% margin of error and a 95% confidence level for a population of 5203 graduate students, which requires a minimum sample size of 357. However, due to constraints in recruitment during the pandemic, we adopted a maximum variation sampling strategy to prioritize diversity across demographics (e.g., race, program focus, SES) rather than representativeness. This approach aligns with mixed-methods studies that emphasize depth over breadth in exploratory phases [15].

2.2.2. Qualitative Data Collection

For qualitative interviews, participants were selected from survey respondents who (1) expressed a willingness to participate in follow-up interviews, (2) reported cross-cultural challenges (e.g., discrimination, language barriers) or significant impacts of COVID-19 restrictions (e.g., academic delays, mental health struggles) in their survey responses, and (3) demonstrated interest in sharing detailed lived experiences. This approach prioritized depth and diversity, ensuring the representation of varied cultural backgrounds, academic disciplines, and pandemic-related adversities. Participants who expressed their willingness to participate in follow-up semi-structured interviews were invited to two one-on-one interviews, each lasting 30 min and scheduled one week apart, based on their availability. Interviewers received training in trauma-informed communication to foster empathy and respect. Participants could skip questions, pause, or terminate interviews without explanation. A list of psychological support resources (e.g., university counseling services, crisis hotlines) was provided post-interview, particularly to participants disclosing trauma (e.g., domestic violence). A total of 21 participants completed the interviews, including 20 graduate international students and 1 undergraduate student. For qualitative interviews, we conducted 21 interviews and achieved thematic saturation after the 18th interview, at which point no new themes emerged [16]. Thus, the final sample size balances pragmatic feasibility with methodological rigor. No high-risk disclosures (e.g., domestic violence) were found during the interviews.

During the interviews conducted via Zoom, participants were asked 8 pre-written questions (Supplementary File S2) about their experiences with remote teaching and learning, mental health, finances, housing, immigration, visa or security problems, academic and life assistance, depression, xenophobia, harassment, or discrimination during COVID-19. In addition to the pre-written questions, they were asked a few impromptu follow-up questions based on their answers to the prior questions, either for clarification or to gain a better understanding of their experiences. These interviews were recorded and transcribed, with pseudonyms assigned to each participant. Participants were not coerced into sharing any information that made them feel uncomfortable. Trust was fostered through informed consent, the use of pseudonyms, and allowing participants to skip questions. All names used in this report are pseudonyms. Although some risks associated with discussing sensitive topics exist, the study’s organizers anticipated that any distress caused would be minimal and unlikely to occur. As a token of appreciation, each interviewee received a $15 Amazon e-gift card.

2.3. Data Analysis

All data were anonymized: identifiers (e.g., names, emails) were removed, and pseudonyms replaced real names in the transcripts. Data were stored in password-protected, encrypted folders on a secure university server, accessible only to the research team. Raw recordings were deleted after transcription.

2.3.1. Quantitative Analysis

• Data Preparation and Cleaning

The quantitative data analysis began with data cleaning to ensure robustness. Missing data, accounting for less than 5% of responses, were handled via pairwise deletion to retain the maximum number of responses without imputation. Outliers were assessed using boxplots and retained if they fell within ±3 standard deviations, thereby preserving natural variability. Normality assumptions for all dependent variables (adaptation, satisfaction, wellness, belonging) were confirmed using Shapiro–Wilk tests (p > 0.05).

• Variable Definitions and Coding

Dependent variables were operationalized using scales adapted from validated instruments: adaptation (1–4), satisfaction (1–4), wellness (1–3), and belonging (1–6). Independent variables included gender (male/female), race (Asian/non-Asian), socioeconomic status (low-SES/others), program focus (STEM/non-STEM), and academic achievement (high-GPA, GPA ≥ 3.5/others). Categorical predictors were dummy-coded (e.g., 0 = male, 1 = female) for the analysis.

• Statistical Methods and Software

Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations) summarized participants’ perceptions of belonging and related constructs (RQ1). A one-way MANOVA tested differences across demographic groups (RQ2), chosen for its ability to analyze multiple correlated dependent variables simultaneously. MANOVA assumptions—multivariate normality (Mahalanobis distance), homogeneity of covariance matrices (Box’s M = 0.12), and absence of multicollinearity (VIF < 5)—were met. Post hoc Tukey’s HSD tests identified specific subgroup differences (e.g., high-achieving students reported stronger belonging, p < 0.01). Analyses were conducted in SPSS 28 using the General Linear Model (GLM) procedure, ensuring reproducibility and rigor.

• Alignment with Research Aims

The analytical approach directly addressed the study’s objective of mapping cross-cultural belonging during COVID-19. For instance, MANOVA revealed that STEM students’ sense of belonging (M = 4.15) differed marginally from that of non-STEM peers (M = 4.20), suggesting disparities in institutional support. Descriptive statistics highlighted overall positive adaptation (M = 2.65) despite pandemic stressors, underscoring themes of resiliency. These findings informed actionable recommendations, such as enhancing STEM-specific mental health resources, thereby directly tying methodological choices to the study’s focus on lived experiences.

2.3.2. Qualitative Analysis

Interviews were transcribed verbatim using Otter.ai, and the transcripts were verified by participants (member checking). The transcripts were anonymized (with pseudonyms assigned) and organized in NVivo 12 for systematic coding. The qualitative data were analyzed using [16] thematic analysis, which was chosen for its flexibility in identifying patterns across participants’ lived cross-cultural experiences. This approach aligned with the study’s objective to explore nuanced, context-dependent narratives of resilience and adaptation during COVID-19, rather than to generate new theoretical frameworks (e.g., grounded theory). Braun and Clarke’s [16] six-phase approach to thematic analysis, along with an inductive approach [17], was employed to investigate the essential experiences regarding the academic, psychological, and social needs and support of international students during COVID-19. The process included (1) familiarizing ourselves with the data, (2) generating initial codes (for example, inductive codes (e.g., “isolation”, “xenophobia”, and “peer support”) were generated line-by-line in NVivo), (3) searching for themes (for example, codes were grouped into candidate themes (e.g., “Mental Health Struggles” and “Institutional Support Gaps”), refined through iterative discussion), (4) reviewing themes, (5) defining themes, and (6) reporting the findings. The identified themes were derived from the explicit meaning of the data that highlighted the patterns of experiences of international students during the COVID-19 pandemic. The importance of a theme was not determined by the number of times it was mentioned by participants; however, the adequacy of the references made to it was considered an important factor in determining the final themes. The qualitative analysis was carried out to answer RQ3.

Milner’s [18] framework was used by both authors to address potential biases, including those that may not be immediately apparent. The framework involves four components: (1) self-reflection, (2) self-reflection in relation to others, (3) reflective engagement and representation, and (4) transitioning from the self to the broader system. The authors are international students from East Asia who have experienced educational challenges and psychological difficulties during the COVID-19 pandemic, which are common experiences among international students, including microaggressions and racism. As female international students at a predominantly white institution (PWI), they are aware of the potential for their own intersectional school experiences to influence their perspectives and potentially cause them to overlook multiple viewpoints on the same issue.

Prior to analyzing the data, both authors reviewed the transcripts of the interviews and created analytical memos outlining their initial personal thoughts on how they connected with the study participants and the phenomena being studied. Two researchers independently coded 20% of the transcripts, achieving strong agreement (κ = 0.82). Other techniques were also utilized in the analysis process, including keeping records of the data analysis procedure, documenting the reasoning behind decisions made when selecting codes, writing reflexive journals, maintaining a clear audit trail, and seeking feedback from participants to verify findings (member checking).

Thematic analysis directly supported the aim of mapping cross-cultural experiences by surfacing shared and divergent narratives (e.g., STEM students’ unique lab access challenges vs. non-STEM peers’ remote learning struggles). Rigorous documentation (e.g., NVivo audit logs, intercoder checks) ensured that the findings authentically reflected participants’ voices, thereby strengthening credibility.

3. Results

3.1. Findings from Survey Data

3.1.1. RQ1 International Students’ Evaluations of Adaptation, Satisfaction, Wellness, and Belonging During COVID-19

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of student perceptions of school experiences during COVID-19.

Category	Adaptation	Satisfaction	Wellness	Belonging
	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)	M (SD)
All Students	2.65 (0.08)	2.9 (0.063)	2 (0.02)	4.2 (0.11)
Gender
Male	2.65 (0.83)	2.91 (0.65)	2.01 (0.24)	4.28 (1.3)
Female	2.65 (0.95)	2.88 (0.7)	2 (0.26)	3.99 (0.97)
Race
Asian	2.64 (0.85)	2.95 (0.61)	1.97 (0.22)	4.23 (1.06)
Non-Asian	2.7 (0.953)	2.74 (0.61)	2.04 (0.31)	4.04 (1.13)
SES
High-SES	2.67 (0.78)	2.89 (0.64)	2.04 (0.3)	3.96 (1.08)
Others	2.62 (0.89)	2.88 (0.713)	1.99 (0.23)	4.22 (1.25)
Program Focus
STEM	2.59 (0.91)	2.95 (0.63)	2.02 (0.24)	4.15 (1.22)
Non-STEM	2.77 (0.75)	2.68 (0.78)	1.92 (0.25)	4.2 (0.97)
Grade Level
Undergraduate	2.39 (0.92)	3 (0.594)	1.93 (0.15)	4.19 (1.34)
Graduate	2.7 (0.86)	2.89 (0.69)	2.01 (0.26)	4.15 (1.13)
GPA
High GPA (>3.5)	2.81 (0.8)	2.89 (0.7)	1.99 (0.25)	4.2 (1.12)
Others	2 (0.89)	2.95 (0.59)	2.02 (0.25)	4 (1.33)

Note: The rating of adaptation ranges from 1 to 4, 1–4 for satisfaction, 1–3 for wellness, and 1–6 for belonging. N = 102.

displays the statistical data on how students perceived their educational experience in school during the COVID-19 pandemic, categorized by demographic groups. Notably, international students demonstrated a higher level of satisfaction in terms of interest and enjoyment. In general, international students at the university had a positive experience both academically and emotionally during the pandemic. Despite facing various difficulties, they were able to adapt to the online learning format that was implemented by the university in response to the pandemic. Additionally, the students expressed contentment with the university’s overall response to COVID-19. They managed to maintain a healthy and safe living environment, both physically and mentally, despite the challenges they faced. Furthermore, they felt a strong sense of belonging to the university and believed that they were valued and supported by it.

3.1.2. RQ2: Variations in Perceptions by Demographic and Academic Characteristics

We utilized the one-way MANOVA technique to examine how gender (male, female), race (Asian, non-Asian), socio-economic status (low SES, others), academic program (STEM, non-STEM), and academic achievement (high-achieving, non-high-achieving) influenced students’ perceptions of their adaptation to online emergency teaching, satisfaction with student support services, health and wellbeing, as well as their sense of belonging and engagement during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results (

Table 3. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) results for students’ perceptions of school experiences during COVID-19 by demographic and academic characteristics (N = 105).

Variable	F	df (Hyp, Error)	Wilks’ Λ	p	Partial η2
Gender (Male, Female)	0.273	(4, 98)	0.978	0.974	0.011
Race (Asian, Non-Asian)	0.940	(4, 97)	0.963	0.444	0.037
Socioeconomic Status	0.601	(4, 88)	0.973	0.663	0.027
Academic Program (STEM, Non-STEM)	1.700	(4, 98)	0.935	0.156	0.065
Academic Level (UG, Grad)	1.558	(4, 100)	0.941	0.191	0.059
Academic Achievement	4.480	(4, 100)	0.848	0.002 *	0.152

Note. Dependent variables included adaptation to emergency teaching, satisfaction with support services, health and wellbeing, and sense of belonging/engagement. UG = undergraduate; Grad = graduate. * p < 0.01.

) indicated that there were no significant differences in students’ perceptions based on gender (F (4, 98) = 0.273, p = 0.974; Wilk’s Λ = 0.978, partial η² = 0.011), race (F (4, 97) = 0.94, p = 0.444; Wilk’s Λ = 0.963, partial η² = 0.037), socio-economic status (F (4, 88) = 0.601, p = 0.663; Wilk’s Λ = 0.973, partial η² = 0.027), academic program (F (4, 98) = 1.7, p = 0.156; Wilk’s Λ = 0.935, partial η² = 0.065), and academic level (undergraduate, graduate) (F (4, 100) = 1.558, p = 0.191; Wilk’s Λ = 0.941, partial η² = 0.059). However, a significant difference was found between high-achieving and non-high-achieving students in their perceptions of their school experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic (F (4, 100) = 4.48, p = 0.002; Wilk’s Λ = 0.848, partial η² = 0.152).

3.2. Findings from Interviews

RQ3: Lived Cross-Cultural Experiences of International Students During COVID-19

Echoing findings in Thorson et al.’s research [8], results generated from the interviews indicated both positive and negative lived cross-cultural experiences of international students during the pandemic. We classified these experiences into seven themes based on the data analysis and illustrated each theme with both positive and negative narratives extracted from the interviews.

• Theme 1: Remote Learning and Teaching Experiences

In general, participants had positive experiences with remote learning, as they believed that their instructors performed well in terms of transitioning the class online, making accommodations for their learning needs, checking in with them more frequently for questions, and recording the class for better accessibility. For example, Jane said that she liked online classes because her professors explained everything well online, were available for questions, and replied to emails promptly. Nevertheless, participants also shared undesirable remote learning experiences, such as a lack of interaction with classmates, reduced communication with professors, too much screen time, and increased vulnerability to distraction.

If participants held graduate teaching assistantships and taught classes during the pandemic, their learning experiences could be still good, but their teaching experiences could be the opposite, depending on how their department and the university prepared them for hybrid teaching. For example, Alice from China was a graduate teaching assistant and said that she felt quite good as a student during the pandemic because the university worked diligently to take care of its students. However, as a graduate instructor, she felt her workload increased dramatically, and she was stressed. For example, as her class was a hybrid one, meaning that students could take the class either online or in person, she had to take care of all students at the same time. This was extremely difficult at the beginning of the pandemic since she was not trained for this and had to learn numerous new tasks in a very short time. She mentioned that she had to manage software like Zoom, WebEx, and Microsoft Teams for different teaching purposes, attend to students both online and in person, and lecture while recording the class at the same time. Since her classes were labs, in addition to the risks she had to take to teach in classrooms while wearing masks and face shields, she also expressed concerns about students who could not have hands-on experiences and thus did not gain as much knowledge as they should have.

• Theme 2: Mental Health Challenges

Most participants experienced some mental issues, such as depression, loneliness, isolation, and anxiety, to varying extents. These mental issues were caused by a wide range of factors, including concerns about the risks of getting infected anddisrupted study and research plans, concerns about running out of food and face masks, uncertainty about the timeline for graduation, and anxiety over internship and housing issues, as well as a shrinking circle of friends.

Students who already had some mental health issues were hit even harder by the pandemic. In our interview, an extreme case was provided by a participant who experienced domestic violence because the COVID-19 pandemic forced her to stay at home and face a violent husband. According to her, she had nowhere to go but to stay at home and endure all the anger her husband directed at her. Another example involved a graduate student who had a knee injury and experienced depression because she found it very hard to book an appointment for treatment. In addition, she was very upset that she was unable to go home and see her family due to visa expiration. According to her, “Starting September or something, my productivity and research dropped even more, and I remember I was just reading a research paper and out of nowhere I would get these anxiety attacks where I would start crying out of nowhere”.

• Theme 3: Financial, Housing, Immigration, Visa, and Security Experiences

Participants shared both pleasant and unpleasant financial, housing, immigration, visa, and security experiences during the pandemic, although unpleasant experiences outweighed pleasant experiences. Pleasant experiences included spending less than before the pandemic because of quarantine and isolated living conditions. For example, Jane shared that she and her partner saved a significant amount of money because they did not go out.

Unpleasant experiences varied from person to person. For Katty from Costa Rica, housing and financial stresses were significant problems. She had to move out of a shared apartment due to concerns over infection risks, as one of her previous roommates was working in a hospital. Finding a new place during the pandemic and paying a much higher rent put a lot of pressure on her. For Betty from India, securing a visa appointment at the end of 2020 and going back home to visit her family was a nightmare experience. According to her,

I was desperate to go to India because I wanted to meet my family really bad. So I was looking for visa appointments every day, every day I would open the website and try to look for appointments, but of course, there were no appointments available at that time in India. And somehow, I got a date in December of 2020, and I was like, okay, now. And I think by that time, flights were open already or a few flights were open. So I was really looking forward to going to India in December 2020. And then after one week or so of my appointment, I got an email that my visa appointment has been canceled. Oh, wow. With no notification. They just canceled it. And then I was not able to find any other appointments after that. So then I had to finally cancel my flights as well for India, and I was stuck here.

Security concerns were more common among Asian students, especially Chinese students. For example, Liz, a Chinese student, became increasingly concerned about her own safety after hearing about some incidents involving attacks on Asians from newspapers and her friends. She said, “Some students tell me that they are getting afraid if ever they want out for groceries, or there are some accidents that we also can read from the newsletter and the newspaper, and other information sources that Asian students, especially Chinese students, are under attack”.

• Theme 4: Biggest Personal and Academic Concerns

The health and wellbeing of their family members back home became the biggest worry for most participants during the pandemic, when they were unable to go back home. The future was uncertain in their home countries in terms of the availability of facemasks and vaccination timelines. For example, Jane from Nicaragua said that she was very worried about her mother in December 2020, when her mother got sick because Jane was not able to go back home due to travel restrictions. Additionally, some participants worried about the possibility of becoming infected and being stuck in the US forever. For example, Opsy from Nigeria said,

My biggest worry would be dying in America. Dying far away from my parents… I just wanted to be with my family. I was just like, yeah, whatever is really going to happen. I don’t want to experience it far away. Thousands of miles away from my loved ones.

Still, some participants worried that their academic plans would be disrupted by the pandemic. Katty from Costa Rica had to postpone her graduation for two years because the pandemic halted her field trip abroad to collect data for her dissertation.

• Theme 5: Experiences with Seeking Academic and Life Assistance

The campus assistance participants sought included counseling and psychological services, student health services, international students’ and scholars’ services, and writing center services. They were all pleased with the writing center services since the online tutoring was convenient and helpful in improving their academic writing. As Liz from China said, “I use the writing lab a lot. They provide nice support. I’ve cultivated my habit that after my writing is done, I send it to the writing lab for people to review and give me advice and suggestions”.

However, participants had mixed experiences with counseling and psychological services, student health services, and services for international students and scholars. Alice experienced depression during the pandemic and sought help from counseling and psychological services. She either found it hard to make an appointment with the service provider, or the service she received was not sufficient to help her overcome her depression. For example, Alice acknowledged that she received professional and helpful psychological counseling services; at the same time, she felt that the help was limited, and it seemed to her that “you feel the push, you feel they treat you tough. They do feel they are in a hurry trying to solve your problem instead of slowing down and doing everything in the normal”. Betty had a knee injury. She first found it hard to make an appointment with the student health service, and second, she did not receive an examination like an X-ray or MRI to accurately diagnose her symptoms. Because of this, she had to seek medical help elsewhere. Opsy felt that the international student services could have done a better job of truly understanding the stress and needs of international students and showing more empathy to them based on their nationalities and specific needs.

In addition to the campus assistance facilities, one participant experiencing domestic violence reported her experience with off-campus assistance facilities. Since the on-campus psychological counseling service was too limited to help her, she was referred to local community services. She said,

They prepared me to face the emergency situation. They give certain stuff in a package and send it to my friend’s home or somewhere that I can easily reach out. And also by that time, I have to move out because of several very extreme situations. And they actually also helped me to seek off-campus or on-campus emergency housing. They also have a legal advocate that can support those living if they want to go for applying for a protection order or other things like pursuing divorce, something like that.

• Theme 6: Experiences with Xenophobia, Harassment, or Discrimination

Experiences with xenophobia mostly affected Chinese participants. No students reported harassment, although one participant shared an experience of discrimination. For example, Alex, from Taiwan, shared a story about his Chinese friend that terrified him. According to Alex, late one night during the pandemic, when his friend was fueling the car at a gas station, he was suddenly attacked by two men who choked him and hit him very hard.

Katty reported that she was excluded by another teaching assistant who took the leading role in their instruction. Because of this, she found,

So students didn’t see me as a person to trust. So they will not talk to me. They will ignore me; she (the other instructor) will interrupt me when I was teaching. And so students perceive that and then they start commenting on my appearance or who I was or whatever.

Katty believed that the evaluation she received from students was unfair because they commented on her appearance and accent instead of her teaching effectiveness.

Additionally, over 10 participants mentioned the uncertainty and anxiety they experienced in July 2020 when the Trump administration issued the directive on July 6 that would ban international students from legally staying in the United States if they took all their classes online during the fall and spring semesters of 2020–2021 [19]. Although the directive was dropped on July 14th, it still caused fear, confusion, and apprehension among international students. For example, Opsy was concerned that she might be expelled from the United States due to the directive and that all the efforts she had put in over the years to pursue her advanced degree at her dream university would be in vain.

• Theme 7: Resilience and Reflections

Despite the disruptions caused by the pandemic to their lives, study plans, health, and more, international students at the university showed resilience, courage, and determination through adaptation and self-reflection, which aligned with the findings of Xu and Zhao [3]. Most participants shared that they overcame many challenges they had never experienced before. For example, Sam, from India, was allergic to certain substances and needed allergy medicine regularly. Because of the pandemic, she learned how to shift all of the in-person pick-ups to online deliveries and telemedicine, which she had never experienced before. Alex, from Taiwan, who enrolled in the university in January 2021, never forgot the first few months of his American life when he had no car, and the pandemic made it very challenging to seek help from others. He had to wait for buses on freezing days to apply for his social security number, run errands, and attend in-person classes.

Many participants developed their own ways to live and study during the pandemic. For Betty, this included a regular workout routine and more communication and time spent with her partner. For Kir from India, it meant having more time to concentrate on himself, go to parks, and practice and improve his cooking skills. For Sam, it involved jogging and running, as well as drawing and sketching both on paper and digitally, and reading textbooks and novels. For Eduardo from Colombia, it entailed creating podcasts with friends to share their experiences as international students and going hiking in state parks.

4. Discussion

This study presents a nuanced understanding of international students’ lived cross-cultural experiences and their evolving sense of belonging during the COVID-19 pandemic, with a focus on a large public Midwestern university with a long-standing tradition of admitting international students. The results of this study align with findings from similarly themed studies on international students as a distinct and integral student population in U.S. higher education. This study confirms that the COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated existing stressors [20,21], such as language barriers [22,23], cultural challenges [22,23,24], and limited social supports [22,25]. These stressors were further compounded by the transition to online instruction [26], social distancing measures [27], and academic delays [28].

Moreover, this study identifies new challenges that international students faced due to the changing circumstances they had to cope with, such as heightened xenophobia and anti-Asian sentiment in the US [29,30], the implementation of travel restrictions, shifting visa regulations [5], and flight cancellations [31]. At the same time, the resilience that international students demonstrated during the pandemic aligns with Bedi et al.’s findings [32], which emphasize that protective factors, such as responsive and positive connections with instructors, community and university assistance, and a responsive learning environment, can help foster resilience. Furthermore, resilience and self-efficacy can help mitigate the negative impact of adversities, such as the pandemic, on international students’ mental health outcomes [30].

To foster a sense of belonging among international students during uncertain and crisis times, such as pandemics, this study highlights several areas in need of targeted institutional responses and support. The socio-cultural and academic environment significantly shaped participants’ sense of belonging. Language barriers, particularly for non-native English speakers, intensified feelings of isolation in academic settings (e.g., during hybrid teaching). However, the campus diversity, with 128 nationalities represented, fostered peer solidarity, as students formed culturally affiliated groups for mutual support. Conversely, the rural Midwestern setting, characterized by limited ethnic diversity and the early relaxation of COVID-19 mandates, heightened anxieties about safety and inclusion. Institutional initiatives, such as multilingual writing centers and virtual cultural events, mitigated these challenges, while gaps in localized mental health resources (e.g., a lack of counselors fluent in Asian languages) underscored disparities. These factors collectively illustrate how institutional policies, community demographics, and resource accessibility intersect to influence cross-cultural belonging.

This study underscores the urgent need for institutions to better support international students, particularly graduate students who face significant financial and logistical challenges when coming to the US with spouses or young children. Similarly, Olatunji et al. [33] found that among 281 of their survey participants, 24% of international students lost funding sources, and 23% of respondents were unable to pay bills due to the pandemic. These challenges highlight the need for expanded financial aid and targeted support programs, including emergency and transitional housing, that acknowledge the specific circumstances of international student populations.

In addition to material and logistical support, our study implies that efforts should be made to improve the visibility and accessibility of institutional resources. Many international students, particularly in their early days in the host country, remain unaware of the available assistance or encounter barriers to accessing services [34]. This gap is especially critical in areas that affect their legal and academic status. Lynch et al. [35] revealed high self-reported anxiety among international students from China and India regarding U.S. visa policy. Reflecting on similar concerns expressed in our interviews, our study suggests that institutions should provide recorded orientation materials, virtual workshops, and multilingual communication channels to help international students navigate the complex institutional systems more effectively, such as maintaining and changing their visa status, accessing health services, obtaining insurance, and participating in employment programs like OPT and CPT.

The mental health concerns identified in our study further highlight the need for institutional investment in comprehensive psychological counseling support. Our findings align with previous studies that show significant rates of depression, anxiety, and trauma among international students during the pandemic. For instance, Song et al. [28] reported that 39.8% of 261 Chinese international students reported depressive symptoms, while Olatunji et al. [33] found that 71% of respondents reported a decline in their mental health. Factors contributing to this deterioration include academic disruptions, visa uncertainties, racial discrimination, and limited social support [27,36]. Because of this, we recommend that universities consider expanding access to culturally competent counseling, increasing staff capacity, and collaborating with local mental health providers to better serve the linguistically and culturally diverse international student population.

Last but not least, our findings emphasize the importance of faculty awareness and sensitivity to the lived experiences of international students. Despite efforts to support this population, many students in this study reported that faculty and staff often lack an understanding of the cultural, financial, and regulatory challenges they face. Zhang et al. [27] and Tozini and Castiello-Gutiérrez [26] similarly observed that this lack of awareness contributed to students’ sense of isolation and exclusion. Faculty development programs that address these issues directly through training on cultural competence, inclusive teaching practices, and the complexities of visa policies, could play a critical role in fostering more equitable and supportive academic environments.

While this study provides important insights, several limitations should be noted. First, the sample was drawn from a single large Midwestern university, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other institutional contexts or geographic regions. Second, self-report bias is possible, given the reliance on participants’ retrospective accounts during a period of significant global upheaval. Third, the study’s reliance on individual interviews and surveys, rather than focus group discussions, may have constrained opportunities to observe socially constructed narratives or shared meaning-making among participants. This design choice was made to prioritize participant confidentiality and mitigate potential power dynamics in group settings, as international students might feel hesitant to discuss sensitive experiences of belonging, exclusion, or cultural adjustment in front of peers. Future research could address this limitation by implementing hybrid methodologies, such as anonymized digital focus groups or sequential mixed methods, to ethically capture both individual and collective dimensions of the international student experience.

Additionally, the sample size (N = 105) and low response rate (8.75%) may limit the generalizability of the quantitative findings. The overrepresentation of Asian and graduate students, while reflective of the university’s international enrollment trends, may obscure nuances in the experiences of underrepresented groups. Future studies could employ mixed-methods longitudinal designs, stratified sampling, and focus group interviews to triangulate findings, address these limitations, and deepen the understanding of cross-cultural variability in students’ sense of belonging.

5. Conclusions

To conclude, international students generally had a positive experience during the pandemic, and they were satisfied with the protective measures implemented by the university. Despite the disruptions, they showed resilience, adaptation, and growth in the new normal by developing their own ways of living and studying during the pandemic. Nevertheless, the pandemic experience for international students was also individualized, and everyone experienced it differently because of their cultural, ethnic, and identity backgrounds. These nuanced experiences deserve continued attention from university administrations and support units to better address the specific needs of international students in times of crisis and beyond.