Assessing the Effects of Unit-Based Pricing on Household Waste Reduction During COVID-19 in Japan
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review and Contributions
3. Empirical Analyses
3.1. Variables and Data Collection
3.2. Panel Data Setting
3.3. Model Specification and Estimation Method
3.4. Brief Summary of Results
3.5. Detailed Results with Discussion
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Types of Analyses | Literature | Effects of Charge |
---|---|---|
Case Studies | Yamatani 2011 [10] | + |
Sakai et al., 2008 [11] | + | |
Amano et al., 1999 [12] | + | |
Cross-Section Data | Irokawa & Murano 2018 [13] | + (except designated cities) |
Ichinose, et al., 2015 [14] | + | |
Nakamura & Kawase 2011 [15] | + | |
Usui 2008 [16] | + | |
Suwa & Usui 2007 [17] | + | |
Usui 2003 [18] | + | |
Yamakawa & Ueta 2002 [19] | + | |
Fukuda et al., 2021 [20] | − | |
Sasao 2000 [21] | − (urban) | |
Panel Data | Nomura & Hibiki 2020 [22] | + |
Tsuzuki et al., 2018 [23] | + | |
Usui & Takeuchi 2014 [24] | + | |
Usui 2011 [25] | + |
Description | Data Sources | |
---|---|---|
Dependent Variable | ||
was | Household waste (per person, per day), g | W |
Explanatory | Variables | |
hos | Average number of people per household | M |
inc | Taxable income per capita, yen | M |
pod | Population density based on a habitable area, per km2 | M |
sep | Number of garbage collection separation | W |
d_sup | Dummy (=1) for municipalities adoption of single unit pricing | Y |
d_ttp | Dummy (=1) for municipalities adoption of two-tiered pricing | Y |
d_post20 | Dummy (=1) for COVID-19 period after 2020 | |
d_post21 | Dummy (=1) for COVID-19 period after 2021 | |
d_post22 | Dummy (=1) for COVID-19 period in 2022 |
Variable | Obs. | Mean | Std. Dev. | Min | Max |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
was | 7689 | 662 | 91 | 312 | 1283 |
hos | 7689 | 2.346 | 0.255 | 1.656 | 3.243 |
ln inc | 7689 | 14.897 | 0.140 | 14.552 | 15.767 |
ln pod | 7689 | 6.962 | 1.076 | 4.127 | 9.604 |
sep | 7689 | 14.258 | 4.979 | 3.000 | 36.000 |
Estimation | i | ii | iii | iv |
---|---|---|---|---|
hos | 31.727 ** | 48.399 *** | 50.305 *** | 51.184 *** |
(2.183) | (2.991) | (3.185) | (3.270) | |
ln inc | −175.081 *** | −205.744 *** | −162.285 *** | −143.830 *** |
(−5.284) | (−5.628) | (−4.442) | (−3.999) | |
in pod | −159.293 *** | −149.475 *** | −150.358 *** | −151.904 *** |
(−5.464) | (−5.143) | (−5.152) | (−5.206) | |
sep | −1.420 *** | −1.427 *** | −1.455 *** | −1.456 *** |
(−2.697) | (−2.669) | (−2.730) | (−2.727) | |
d_post20 | 1.304 | 9.499 *** | 9.109 *** | |
(0.685) | (5.216) | (4.987) | ||
d_post21 | −15.038 *** | −11.415 *** | ||
(−8.821) | (−7.743) | |||
d_post22 | −8.448 *** | |||
(−5.044) | ||||
d_sup | −56.202 *** | −60.255 *** | −60.365 *** | −60.363 *** |
(−10.346) | (−10.770) | (−10.846) | (−10.902) | |
d_sup d_post20 | 10.863 *** | 4.328 * | 4.275 | |
(4.051) | (1.648) | (1.628) | ||
d_sup d_post21 | 9.537 *** | 9.059 *** | ||
(4.784) | (4.613) | |||
d_sup d_post22 | 0.810 | |||
(0.383) | ||||
cumulated d_sup | −56.202 | −49.392 | −46.393 | −46.219 |
d_ttp | −40.298 *** | −28.901 *** | −30.130 *** | −30.589 *** |
(−12.742) | (−6.788) | (−7.073) | (−7.187) | |
d_ttp d_post20 | −15.007 ** | −15.846 ** | −15.805 ** | |
(−2.133) | (−2.077) | (−2.074) | ||
d_ttp d_post21 | 1.537 | 2.906 | ||
(0.341) | (0.678) | |||
d_ttp d_post22 | −2.655 | |||
(−0.574) | ||||
Adjusted R−squared | 0.897 | 0.899 | 0.899 | 0.900 |
Fixed Effect (cities) | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Number of cities | 770 | 770 | 770 | 770 |
Observations | 7689 | 7689 | 7689 | 7689 |
Estimation | Total Sample | “The Sample of Larger Cities” | “The Sample of Smaller Cities” |
---|---|---|---|
hos | 51.604 *** | 130.408 *** | −4.415 |
(3.299) | (6.301) | (−0.222) | |
ln inc | −143.466 *** | −216.706 *** | −59.281 |
(−3.991) | (−4.032) | (−1.516) | |
in pod | −151.296 *** | −152.979 *** | −60.365 * |
(−5.188) | (−3.301) | (−1.702) | |
sep | −1.347 ** | −1.239 ** | −1.071 |
(−2.574) | (−2.133) | (−1.289) | |
d_post20 | 8.105 *** | 14.533 *** | 9.596 *** |
(4.540) | (7.346) | (2.924) | |
d_post21 | −11.236 *** | −8.891 *** | −11.839 *** |
(−7.864) | (−6.034) | (−3.984) | |
d_post22 | −8.622 *** | −9.469 *** | −2.801 |
(−5.389) | (−7.507) | (−0.720) | |
d_sup | −60.472 *** | −49.660 *** | −70.927 *** |
(−10.898) | (−8.346) | (−4.874) | |
d_sup d_post20 | 5.326 ** | 5.592 | 0.634 |
(2.047) | (1.627) | (0.155) | |
d_sup d_post21 | 8.885 *** | 5.549 *** | 8.644 ** |
(4.610) | (2.832) | (2.468) | |
d_sup d_post22 | 0.985 | 1.723 | −4.428 |
(0.478) | (0.921) | (−1.027) | |
Adjusted R−squared | 0.900 | 0.909 | 0.901 |
Fixed Effect (cities) | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Number of cities | 770 | 385 | 385 |
Observations | 7689 | 3850 | 3839 |
was (−1) | −0.038 | −0.047 |
(−1.011) | (−1.127) | |
was (−2) | −0.050 * | |
(−1.807) | ||
hos | −123.669 *** | −95.777 ** |
(−2.945) | (−2.228) | |
ln inc | −44.848 | −6.221 |
(−0.716) | (−0.101) | |
in pod | −11.812 | −12.448 |
(−0.201) | (−0.215) | |
sep | −56.062 *** | −56.271 *** |
(−6.566) | (−6.395) | |
d_post20 | 9.427 ** | 12.432 *** |
(2.267) | (3.074) | |
d_post21 | −12.626 *** | −12.672 *** |
(−3.590) | (−3.566) | |
d_post22 | −10.408 *** | −10.290 *** |
(−3.367) | (−3.267) | |
d_sup | −243.773 * | −242.919 * |
(−1.770) | (−1.696) | |
d_sup d_post20 | 0.140 | −1.887 |
(0.029) | (−0.392) | |
d_sup d_post21 | 1.636 | 1.630 |
(0.408) | (0.403) | |
d_sup d_post22 | −0.016 | 0.661 |
(−0.004) | (0.174) | |
d_ttp | −332.648 | −218.382 |
(−0.396) | (−0.355) | |
d_ttp d_post20 | −71.065 * | −74.424 * |
(−1.758) | (−1.822) | |
d_ttp d_post21 | 0.784 | 1.771 |
(0.148) | (0.333) | |
d_ttp d_post22 | −9.977 | −16.290 |
(−0.667) | (−1.069) | |
Number of cities | 770 | 770 |
Observations | 6149 | 5379 |
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Karasawa, M.; Taguchi, H. Assessing the Effects of Unit-Based Pricing on Household Waste Reduction During COVID-19 in Japan. COVID 2024, 4, 1851-1862. https://doi.org/10.3390/covid4120130
Karasawa M, Taguchi H. Assessing the Effects of Unit-Based Pricing on Household Waste Reduction During COVID-19 in Japan. COVID. 2024; 4(12):1851-1862. https://doi.org/10.3390/covid4120130
Chicago/Turabian StyleKarasawa, Michiko, and Hiroyuki Taguchi. 2024. "Assessing the Effects of Unit-Based Pricing on Household Waste Reduction During COVID-19 in Japan" COVID 4, no. 12: 1851-1862. https://doi.org/10.3390/covid4120130
APA StyleKarasawa, M., & Taguchi, H. (2024). Assessing the Effects of Unit-Based Pricing on Household Waste Reduction During COVID-19 in Japan. COVID, 4(12), 1851-1862. https://doi.org/10.3390/covid4120130