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Review

Fungal Biotechnology Applications in Sustainable Oil Extraction

by
Mariana B. Barbieri
,
Dario Corrêa Junior
and
Susana Frases
*
Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-901, RJ, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Microbiol. 2025, 5(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol5010008
Submission received: 19 December 2024 / Revised: 11 January 2025 / Accepted: 14 January 2025 / Published: 15 January 2025
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Abstract

:
This paper examines the role of filamentous fungi in enhancing the sustainable extraction of vegetable oils from oilseeds. Fungi such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Trichoderma, and Rhizopus are highlighted for their ability to produce hydrolytic enzymes, including lipases, cellulases, and hemicellulases, which break down plant cell walls and facilitate oil release. This biotechnological approach not only improves oil yield but also reduces operational costs and environmental impacts, contributing to sustainable development goals. The integration of oleaginous fungi, capable of accumulating lipids, is also discussed as a promising avenue for boosting oil production efficiency. Furthermore, this paper underscores the importance of combining traditional knowledge with modern biotechnological advancements. This integration respects local cultural practices while optimizing extraction processes, ensuring minimal ecological disruption. The use of fungi in oilseed degradation represents a significant step towards more eco-friendly and cost-effective vegetable oil production, making it a valuable contribution to sustainable agricultural and industrial practices.

1. Introduction

The Amazon, the largest tropical rainforest in the world, represents immense biological wealth and is widely recognized as a strategic hub for the exploration and use of biotechnological products. This biome spans an area of 7,000,000 km2, of which 6,000,000 km2 is covered by tropical forests that extend across nine countries, and is home to approximately 400,000 self-declared indigenous people [1]. The region harbors about one-third of the planet’s life forms, playing a crucial role in carbon absorption, cycling a quarter of the world’s freshwater, and maintaining climate balance [2]. Within this rich and complex ecosystem, the diversity of plant species and associated microorganisms offers promising opportunities for sustainable product development.
Among the traditional knowledge of indigenous and local communities in the Amazon, the sustainable use of vegetable oils stands out. These oils have been extracted for centuries by indigenous and riverine populations using artisanal methods, which include microbial fermentation to facilitate the release of oil from seeds [3]. These extraction methods exemplify low-impact approaches that can inspire modern biotechnological applications [4]. In addition to promoting biodiversity conservation, these sustainable practices are vital for economic development, with the production of vegetal oils playing an important role in industries such as pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, generating positive socio-economic impacts, and supporting the livelihoods of local communities.
The increasing demand for vegetable oils in industries such as food, biofuels, and cosmetics has led to the pursuit of extraction techniques that prioritize both efficiency and sustainability while remaining economically feasible [5]. These oils are crucial to the global market, acting as key ingredients in food production and as raw materials in various industrial applications. Traditional extraction methods, however, come with significant drawbacks, including high energy usage, dependence on chemical solvents, and environmental concerns related to agriculture and forestry [6]. In response, biotechnology offers a promising alternative, with an emphasis on using filamentous fungi, which are organisms that can break down plant biomass, thereby enabling oil extraction in a more sustainable and potentially more efficient manner [7].
The application of filamentous fungi in the degradation of oilseeds holds great potential to optimize the oil extraction process [8]. These organisms, widely distributed in nature, are known for their ability to produce hydrolytic and oxidative enzymes that break down complex components found in plant cells, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and proteins, facilitating the release of oils contained in the seeds [9,10]. In addition to being an ecological alternative to traditional methods, the use of filamentous fungi can reduce operational costs, increase process efficiency, and minimize environmental impacts, aligning with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals [11,12].
The true breakthrough in biotechnology lies in the ability to explore and adapt natural processes, such as those carried out by these fungi, for the benefit of humanity [13,14]. Over millions of years, these microorganisms have developed sophisticated mechanisms for biomass degradation, essentially “recycling the world”, processes that can now be applied in a targeted way to meet contemporary industrial demands in favor of sustainable development [15]. Technology is inherently present in these fungi, and the role of science is to identify and adapt their natural processes to optimize methods like vegetable oil extraction. In this way, filamentous fungi become central agents in more sustainable production strategies, with the potential to transform key industrial sectors such as food, cosmetics, and biofuels, mitigating the environmental impacts associated not only with traditional extraction methods but with the entire agribusiness production chain.

2. Biotechnological Interests of Filamentous Fungi and Their Key Associated Genera

The kingdom fungi constitutes one of the most diverse and fascinating groups in the world, comprising between 1 and 5 million species [16]. Encompassing a wide range of unicellular and multicellular organisms, fungi play vital roles in all ecosystems and have significant importance in many aspects of human life [17]. In terms of diversity, fungi exhibit an impressive variety of shapes and sizes. From unicellular microorganisms like yeasts to complex multicellular structures like mushrooms, fungi are cosmopolitan, occupying a wide variety of ecological niches and adapting to habitats as diverse as soils, waters, plants, and animals [18].
Filamentous fungi are microscopic organisms known for their ability to form multicellular structures called hyphae, which are organized into a dense network known as mycelium [19]. This structure provides them with a high surface area for contact with the environment, facilitating the absorption of nutrients and the secretion of extracellular enzymes that degrade complex organic materials [19].
The biotechnological potential of filamentous fungi is significant across various industries, largely due to their metabolic adaptability and capacity to thrive on diverse substrates. These fungi are particularly efficient in solid-state fermentation [20], which is a valuable method for converting agricultural waste into high-value products such as enzymes, organic acids, and bioactive compounds. Additionally, filamentous fungi show great promise in biofuel production [21] and environmental bioremediation [22], thanks to their ability to degrade complex polymers like cellulose and lignin. This capacity enhances the sustainability and efficiency of industrial processes [9,23].
Their role in the degradation of oilseeds is also crucial, making them indispensable in biotechnological applications related to oil extraction [7]. Among the most significant genera are Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Rhizopus, and Trichoderma, belonging to the Ascomycota and Zygomycota phyla [24]. These genera are especially known for producing a wide array of hydrolytic enzymes like cellulases, xylanases, pectinases, and lipases, which are essential for breaking down the structural components of seeds, thereby facilitating the release of oils stored in the lipid-rich cells of plant tissues [25,26].
The genus Aspergillus is widely recognized for its metabolic versatility and its ability to produce a broad spectrum of enzymes that are critical for the degradation of plant materials [27]. Among these, cellulases break down cellulose into glucose, vital in converting lignocellulosic biomass [28]. Additionally, Aspergillus species produce hemicellulases such as xylanases, which degrade hemicellulose into its component sugars [29]. Aspergillus niger is particularly noted for its production of pectinases, which hydrolyze pectin in plant cell walls, as well as amylases that break down starch into sugars [30,31]. These enzymes have significant industrial applications, including in the production of biofuels, the processing of agricultural residues, and the food industry [21]. Aspergillus oryzae, for instance, is extensively used in food fermentation processes due to its ability to hydrolyze both starches and proteins, facilitating the production of traditional fermented foods [32].
Similarly, the most significant enzymes produced by Penicillium species are cellulases and hemicellulases, such as xylanases and arabinofuranosidases, that degrade hemicellulose into its constituent sugars, facilitating the complete breakdown of plant cell walls [33]. In addition to these, Penicillium species are noted for their production of pectinases, which hydrolyze pectin into galacturonic acid and other sugars, making them valuable in the processing of fruits and vegetables, as well as in the bioconversion of plant residues [34]. Furthermore, Penicillium chrysogenum, famous for its role in the production of penicillin, also produces enzymes like β-glucosidase, which plays a critical role in cellulose degradation by converting cellobiose into glucose, for example [33,35]. These enzymatic capabilities make Penicillium a valuable genus in various biotechnological applications, including the degradation of plant biomass, the production of biofuels, and the processing of agricultural residues.
Rhizopus species are prolific producers of enzymes such as amylases, which hydrolyze starch into sugars, making them essential in the food industry, especially in the production of traditional fermented foods and beverages [36]. Rhizopus oryzae, in particular, is recognized for its production of lipases and proteases, which break down fats and proteins, respectively [37,38]. These enzymes are activated during the fermentation of seeds, facilitating the release of oils and enhancing the nutritional profile of fermented products. Moreover, Rhizopus species also produce cellulases and hemicellulases, making them valuable in the bioconversion of agricultural residues into biofuels and other high-value products. The ability of Rhizopus to produce a wide range of enzymes under solid-state fermentation conditions underscores its potential in industrial applications, particularly in the sustainable production of biofuels, biochemicals, and food products [39,40].
The Trichoderma genus is particularly notable for its cellulase production, making it essential for industrial processes related to cellulose degradation [41,42]. Among its species, Trichoderma reesei stands out due to its highly efficient cellulase production, which involves a synergistic action of endoglucanases, exoglucanases, and β-glucosidases, all working together to break down cellulose into glucose [41]. This enzymatic activity plays a pivotal role in converting lignocellulosic biomass into biofuels and other valuable products [43]. Furthermore, Trichoderma species are capable of producing xylanases and other hemicellulases, enhancing their ability to degrade plant cell walls [44]. In addition to its cellulolytic enzymes, Trichoderma harzianum is recognized for producing chitinases and glucanases, which target the cell walls of other fungi. This trait is crucial for its role in biocontrol, where it helps protect crops from fungal pathogens [45]. These enzymes contribute both to the breakdown of plant material and to biological control in agriculture, positioning Trichoderma as a valuable genus in industrial biotechnology and crop protection.
The genus Fusarium is significant for its role in the degradation of plant biomass, particularly in agricultural environments where it is commonly found [46]. Fusarium species, such as Fusarium oxysporum and Fusarium solani, are known for their production of cellulases and hemicellulases, which facilitate the breakdown of lignocellulosic materials into fermentable sugars materials [47,48]. These enzymes are critical in the bioconversion of plant residues into biofuels and other valuable products. Additionally, Fusarium produces pectinases and ligninases, which degrade pectin and lignin, respectively, further contributing to the breakdown of plant cell walls [49]. However, Fusarium species are also known for producing mycotoxins, which pose challenges for their use in biotechnological applications species [50,51]. Despite this, the potential of Fusarium to contribute to the degradation of plant biomass and the bioconversion of agricultural residues into biofuels, biofertilizers, and other high-value products has garnered increasing interest [7,52]. Research into the detoxification of mycotoxins and the safe use of Fusarium species in industrial processes continues to expand the potential applications of this genus in biotechnology, particularly in the sustainable production of biofuels and other renewable resources.
These fungal genera not only degrade the structural components of seeds and other plant structures but also could adapt their enzymatic activity to environmental conditions and the types of available substrates, making them highly efficient in industrial processes. Their capacity to break down cellulose, plant cell walls, and other complex polymers, as well as their potential to cause plant diseases, further highlights their versatility. This enzymatic machinery can also be harnessed to degrade seeds for the extraction of oils. This ability, intrinsically linked to their saprophytic lifestyle, not only promotes the efficient release of vegetable oils contained in oilseeds but also impacts the quality of the final product, enriching it with biomolecules of industrial interest [21,53,54].
On the other hand, there are fungi referred to as “oleaginous”, such as Mortierella isabellina, which synthesize and accumulate lipids that can be directly extracted as vegetable oils [7,55,56]. Unlike degrading fungi, these organisms convert carbon-rich substrates into lipids, expanding the possibilities for vegetable oil production, especially from organic waste [57]. The combination of the capabilities of these two groups of fungi presents significant potential to enhance sustainable oil production, contributing to advances in the bioeconomy.

3. Exploring the Mechanisms and Implications of Fungal Seed Degradation for Oil Extraction

Vegetable oils and essential oils, though often confused, have distinct chemical characteristics, uses, and extraction methods. Vegetable oils are lipids primarily extracted from seeds, fruits, or other plant parts rich in fatty acids, in crops like soybean, sunflower, canola, and palm. They are widely used in the food, cosmetics, and biofuel industries due to their high energy content, emollient properties, and versatile applications. Their extraction traditionally involves mechanical methods, such as cold pressing, or chemical methods, using solvents to increase yield [58,59].
In contrast, essential oils are complex mixtures of volatile compounds, mainly terpenes and aromatic compounds, which provide fragrance and therapeutic properties to plants. They are extracted by methods such as steam distillation, the cold pressing of citrus fruit peels, or solvent extraction, depending on the plant of origin. These oils have predominant applications in aromatherapy, perfumery, and as active ingredients in pharmaceutical and cosmetic products [60,61].
The main difference, therefore, lies in their chemical composition and final use. While vegetable oils are mainly composed of triglycerides and are used as sources of nutrition and energy [58], essential oils are valued for their volatile and bioactive properties, playing a crucial role in natural therapies and fragrances [61]. This distinction is critical when considering extraction methods and the potential improvements that fungal biotechnology can offer, especially in the context of vegetable oils, where efficiency and process sustainability should be priorities.
Oilseeds serve as the primary source of vegetable oils and are vital for global production across various industries [62]. Crops such as soybean, sunflower, canola, palm, flaxseed, and sesame are commonly cultivated for oil extraction because of their high lipid concentrations [63]. The oils are mainly obtained from seeds that store triglycerides within specialized cellular structures, making them particularly efficient for large-scale commercial use [64].
The lipid composition of these seeds varies, resulting in oils with different fatty acid profiles, which influence their physical and chemical properties, such as melting point, oxidative stability, and nutritional value [63]. For example, soybean oil is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic acid [65], while palm oil contains a high proportion of saturated fatty acids, such as palmitic acid, giving it greater stability and making it suitable for industrial processes that require oxidation resistance, such as biofuel combustion processes [66,67].
The extraction of these oils generally occurs through mechanical methods, such as pressing, or through chemical processes involving solvents like hexane to maximize yield [68]. However, these methods present challenges that often hinder production for both large and small producers, including the need for large amounts of energy and solvents, as well as potential negative environmental impacts [6]. It is in this context that filamentous fungal biotechnology offers a promising alternative, utilizing natural enzymatic processes to degrade the cell walls of seeds and release oils more efficiently and sustainably.
Filamentous fungi employ a series of biochemical and physiological mechanisms to degrade oilseeds [69], processes that are crucial for the release of vegetable oils. Degradation begins with the colonization of seed surfaces by hyphae, which depolymerize plant structures through the secretion of specialized extracellular enzymes [70,71]. These enzymes are responsible for breaking down the cell walls of seeds, which are composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and lignin, allowing access to the stored lipids [9] (Figure 1).
In addition to hydrolytic enzymes, filamentous fungi employ other strategies to optimize seed degradation. The production of secondary metabolites, such as organic acids (e.g., citric acid and benzoic acid), can acidify the microenvironment, facilitating the destabilization of plant structures and increasing enzyme efficiency. These metabolites can also act as chelating agents, solubilizing minerals that may be necessary for enzymatic activity [31,72].
Another crucial aspect of the degradation process is the fungi’s ability to perform solid-state fermentation (SSF), which is particularly effective in converting solid substrates, such as seeds, fruit peels, pulp, and leaves, into high-value products [73]. During SSF, fungal growth on the solid substrate is accompanied by the production of a rich enzymatic matrix that maximizes contact between the enzymes and the plant material. This method not only improves degradation efficiency but also enables the utilization of agricultural residues that would otherwise be discarded, contributing to the sustainability of the process [7,73].
In addition to the mechanisms already discussed, the efficient degradation of seeds by filamentous fungi depends on the coordinated action of various extracellular enzymes that work synergistically to break down complex plant macromolecules. Below, we present a table that links the key enzymes involved in this process to their specific functions, target components, examples of producing fungi, relevant biotechnological applications, and the types of oil-bearing seeds commonly treated by these fungi (Table 1).

4. Exploration of Traditional Amazonian Techniques for Oil Extraction

Traditional oil extraction methods in the Amazon region have been developed over centuries, passed down through generations of indigenous and local communities who rely on forest products for sustenance and trade [106]. These methods are particularly used for extracting oils from seeds such as cocoa (Theobroma cocoa) and açaí (Euterpe oleracea) [107,108]. The process generally involves the manual collection of seeds, followed by fermentation under controlled conditions, either in the shade or underground, where the seeds naturally degrade [4]. Fermentation, a pivotal step in these traditional methods, typically lasts for several days and helps soften the seed material, easing the mechanical extraction of oil by pressing [4,109].
An interesting aspect of these traditional techniques is the role of microorganisms, particularly filamentous fungi, in the seed degradation process. During fermentation, fungi such as species of Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Rhizopus proliferate and break down the outer seed layers and internal storage components [107]. The biological degradation they induce reduces the seed’s structural integrity, thus making the extraction of oils, such as andiroba oil, more efficient [4]. This is particularly important for seeds with tough exocarps or those with complex cellular structures that otherwise would make oil release challenging.
The main distinction between traditional Amazonian techniques and contemporary biotechnological methods is the level of control and optimization. Traditional fermentation depends on naturally occurring fungi, whereas modern methods improve this process by utilizing targeted fungal strains or enzyme combinations specifically optimized for higher efficiency and yield. Advances in biotechnology now allow for the controlled fermentation of seeds through the use of engineered fungi or microbial communities, enhancing both oil yield and quality [8]. This is particularly important for industrial use, where consistency and maximized production are critical factors.
Nevertheless, traditional methods remain highly sustainable and eco-friendly, using no synthetic chemicals or energy-intensive machinery. These practices are embedded within the ecosystem, often following principles of low-impact harvesting and local biodiversity preservation [110]. The integration of traditional knowledge with modern biotechnology offers a promising pathway toward more sustainable oil extraction practices, where the benefits of improved efficiency do not come at the expense of environmental or cultural degradation.

5. Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Filamentous Fungi in Seed Degradation for Oil Extraction

One of the main advantages of using filamentous fungi in the extraction of vegetable oils is the ability of these organisms to produce a wide range of enzymes that efficiently degrade the cell walls of oilseeds [69,111,112]. The application of fungi such as Aspergillus, Trichoderma, and Rhizopus facilitates the release of lipids contained in plant cells, providing more efficient extraction with lower environmental impact [25]. Moreover, solid-state fermentation, a technique often associated with fungal biotechnology, allows the use of agricultural residues as substrates, promoting bioeconomy and reducing waste [20,113,114].
Another significant advantage is the possibility of genetically modifying filamentous fungi to optimize the production of specific enzymes, adapting them to the needs of different extraction processes [115]. This allows for the customization of extraction conditions, resulting in high-quality vegetable oils with desired characteristics, such as greater oxidative stability or a specific lipid profile, since these fungi are also capable of altering the properties of the substrate and, consequently, the oil that will be released [53]. The practical application of filamentous fungi in vegetable oil production processes has been documented across various stages, from seed preparation to oil extraction. Table 2 summarizes fungal strains and their associated substrates, enzymatic activities, manufacturers, and specific industrial applications, illustrating biotechnological advancements in this field.
Despite these promising advantages, the application of fungal biotechnology in the extraction of vegetable oils faces some limitations and challenges. One of the main obstacles is the need for the strict control of the fungi’s cultivation conditions. To ensure the successful application of filamentous fungi in vegetable oil extraction, it is essential to create and maintain optimal conditions not only for fungal growth but also to protect the fungal strain from contamination [7]. These conditions include maintaining precise control over temperature, pH, humidity, and nutrient availability, as well as ensuring sterile environments to prevent the introduction of competing microorganisms or pathogens [116]. Contamination can significantly reduce the efficiency of oil extraction and compromise the quality of the final product [117]. Therefore, enterprises must implement rigorous protocols for the periodic monitoring of the purity of the fungal strain. Express genetic identification methods, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or DNA barcoding, are particularly suitable for this purpose, as they allow for the rapid and accurate detection of contamination or genetic drift in a fungal strain [118]. This ensures the consistency and reliability of the biotechnological process, safeguarding both the yield and quality of the extracted oils.
Furthermore, the prolonged use of a single fungal strain in industrial settings, such as workshops or production facilities, can lead to the contamination of the environment with that strain [119]. This contamination can make it difficult to introduce new strains, as the existing strain may outcompete or interfere with the performance of the new one. Addressing this issue often requires either complete disinfection of the facility or, in extreme cases, the construction of new premises, which can significantly increase operational costs and complexity [120]. Additionally, adapting fungal technology to different production scales, from small producers to large industries, requires ongoing innovations and investments in research and development [121].
The separation and purification of oils extracted by fungal bioprocesses require optimization to ensure high yield and quality [122]. Methods such as centrifugation, filtration, and solvent extraction are commonly employed to separate oil from residual biomass post-fungal fermentation [7]. Advanced techniques, including supercritical fluid extraction and membrane separation, are being explored to improve the efficiency of oil purification while reducing solvent use and environmental impact [123]. In addition, the potential contamination of oils with mycotoxins produced by certain fungal species remains a concern. Research into detoxification processes has shown promise, with approaches like the use of adsorbents (e.g., activated carbon and bentonite), the enzymatic degradation of toxins, and genetic engineering to reduce or eliminate toxin biosynthesis pathways in fungi [124]. These strategies aim to ensure that oils extracted through fungal bioprocesses meet safety and regulatory standards for industrial and human consumption.
Some fungi may be highly effective in degrading a specific type of seed but less efficient in others, requiring careful selection and possibly a combination of strains to achieve maximum yield [7,26,125]. Additionally, adapting fungal technology to different production scales, from small producers to large industries, requires ongoing innovations and investments in research and development.

6. Future Perspectives and Emerging Biotechnologies

The use of filamentous fungi in the degradation of oilseeds for the production of vegetable oils represents a promising frontier in industrial biotechnology, with the potential to transform conventional processes into more sustainable and efficient approaches. As global demands for renewable sources of energy and chemicals increase, the development of new fungus-based technologies becomes increasingly relevant [126].
One of the main future perspectives is the metabolic engineering of filamentous fungi to optimize the production of specific enzymes and increase the efficiency of degrading complex substrates [127]. Genetic editing techniques, such as CRISPR-Cas9, are being explored to modify metabolic pathways, enabling the production of enzymes with higher activity or specificity [128]. Additionally, the engineering of microbial consortia, where filamentous fungi are combined with microalgae or other fungi to create synergistic systems, may offer new possibilities for the decomposition of plant materials and the extraction of oils [129].
Furthermore, the application of omics techniques, such as genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, is opening new opportunities to understand the complex interaction between fungi and seeds during degradation. These approaches allow for the identification of new genes and proteins involved in the process, offering potential targets for bioengineering [130,131,132]. The integration of these techniques with bioinformatics tools and computational modeling can accelerate the discovery and development of more efficient and robust fungal strains for industrial use.
Sustainability must be a priority in modern biotechnology. The implementation of biorefinery processes, where all seed components are valorized, represents a significant advancement. In this context, filamentous fungi play a central role, not only in oil extraction but also in the production of high-value by-products such as biopolymers, antioxidants, and nutritional supplements [133]. Future research should focus on integrating these approaches at industrial scales, contributing to the economy and reducing waste.

7. Conclusions

Biotechnology applied to filamentous fungi stands out as a powerful and innovative tool in vegetable oil extraction, offering more efficient and sustainable alternatives to conventional methods. The ability of these fungi to degrade oilseeds through specific enzymes, as well as the capability of oleaginous fungi to synthesize lipids, opens up a vast range of possibilities for vegetable oil production. This approach not only improves the yield and quality of the extracted oils but also reduces the associated environmental impact, aligning with global sustainable development goals.
The future of filamentous fungi biotechnology in vegetable oil extraction is promising, with extensive potential for expansion both in terms of application and scope. Future research should focus on discovering and engineering new strains with higher enzymatic efficiency, as well as optimizing cultivation conditions to maximize oil production. Integrating this technology with other sustainable approaches, such as regenerative agriculture, could create synergies capable of significantly enhancing the viability and acceptance of this biotechnological process.
Additionally, the potential of filamentous fungi in specific niches, such as the production of vegetable oils with functional properties for the cosmetics and biofuel industries, is vast and still largely unexplored. Developing more in-depth research exploring oilseeds as ideal substrates for synthesizing specific degradative enzymes will be crucial in establishing this technology as a viable and economically competitive alternative. By consolidating these advances, filamentous fungi biotechnology could play a central role in transitioning to a more sustainable and innovative bioeconomy.

Author Contributions

M.B.B. conducted the literature review, drafted the manuscript, and contributed conceptual ideas. D.C.J. and S.F. revised the manuscript, provided critical feedback, and contributed additional concepts. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was funded by Carlos Chagas Filho Foundation for Research Support of the State of Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ), Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), and National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq).

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Applmicrobiol 05 00008 g001
Figure 1. Simplified diagram of how seed degradation works through fungal proliferation.
Figure 1. Simplified diagram of how seed degradation works through fungal proliferation.
Applmicrobiol 05 00008 g001
Table 1. Enzymes produced by fungi of biotechnological interest, their target components, function, biotechnological applications, and oilseeds commonly treated by these fungi.
Table 1. Enzymes produced by fungi of biotechnological interest, their target components, function, biotechnological applications, and oilseeds commonly treated by these fungi.
EnzymeFunctionTarget ComponentFungiBiotechnologycal AplicationOil-Bearing Seeds TreatedReference
CellulaseDegrades cellulose into glucose by breaking β-1,4-glycosidic bondsCelluloseTrichoderma reesei, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium oxalicum, Penicillium sp.Production of biofuels, bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass, textile industry for fabric processingSoybean, rice, sunflower seeds[70,74,75,76,77,78,79,80]
HemicellulaseHydrolyzes hemicellulose, releasing xylose and other simple sugarsHemicelluloseAspergillus niger, Penicillium chrysogenum, Trichoderma reeseiBioconversion of plant biomass, biofuel production, paper industry for pulp processingSoybean[74,81,82,83]
PectinaseBreaks down pectin into galacturonic acids, facilitating cell wall breakdownPectinAspergillus oryzae, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium notatum, Rhizopus oryzaeFood industry for fruit juice clarification, wine production, textile industry for plant fiber processingCitrus seeds[37,84,85,86]
LigninaseOxidizes lignin, facilitating the decomposition of the lignocellulosic matrixLigninAspergillus fumigatusPulp and paper industry, bioremediation of contaminated sites, biofuel productionCotton seeds, sunflower seeds[47,79,87,88]
ProteaseBreaks down proteins into peptides and amino acidsStructural ProteinsAspergillus oryzae, Rhizopus oryzae, Trichoderma harzianum, Fusarium calmorumDetergent industry, leather processing, food industry, waste managementWheat seed, jatropha seed[37,89,90,91,92]
LipaseCatalyzes the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols into free fatty acids and glycerolStored lipids (lipid droplets)Rhizopus oryzae, Aspergillus nigerOil extraction processes, biodiesel production, food industry, pharmaceutical industrySoybean, palm seed[54,93,94,95,96]
AmylaseDegrades starch into simple sugars like maltose and glucoseStarchAspergillus oryzae, Aspergillus niger, Rhizopus oryzaeFood industry for brewing, baking, and high-fructose corn syrup production, textile industry for desizingSoybean, shea seed[84,97,98,99,100]
EsteraseBreaks down plant esters, contributing to the release of fatty acidsLipid and polysaccharide estersPenicillium chrysogenum, Aspergillus niger, Rhizopus oryzaeSynthesis of esters for flavor and fragrance industry, bioremediation, pharmaceutical industryJatropha seed[54,101,102,103,104,105]
Table 2. Application of fungi in vegetable oil production process.
Table 2. Application of fungi in vegetable oil production process.
Fungal StrainOily Seed SubstrateEnzyme ActivityApplicationReference
Aspergillus sp.SoybeanLipase, cellulaseEnhancing oil extraction efficiency through cell wall breakdown[75,76,77]
Rhizopus oryzaePalm seedLipaseImproving lipid release during fermentation[95,96]
Trichoderma reeseiSoybeanCellulase, hemicellulaseBreakdown of lignocellulosic barriers to release oil[83]
Penicillium sp.RicePectinase, cellulaseOptimizing oil release with pectin and celluase degradation[78]
Fusarium oxysporumSunflowerCellulase, ligninaseBiodegradation of lignin to improve oil recovery[79]
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Barbieri, M.B.; Corrêa Junior, D.; Frases, S. Fungal Biotechnology Applications in Sustainable Oil Extraction. Appl. Microbiol. 2025, 5, 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol5010008

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Barbieri MB, Corrêa Junior D, Frases S. Fungal Biotechnology Applications in Sustainable Oil Extraction. Applied Microbiology. 2025; 5(1):8. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol5010008

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Barbieri, Mariana B., Dario Corrêa Junior, and Susana Frases. 2025. "Fungal Biotechnology Applications in Sustainable Oil Extraction" Applied Microbiology 5, no. 1: 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol5010008

APA Style

Barbieri, M. B., Corrêa Junior, D., & Frases, S. (2025). Fungal Biotechnology Applications in Sustainable Oil Extraction. Applied Microbiology, 5(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/applmicrobiol5010008

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