From Paratransit to Emerging Transportation and Micro-Mobility: A Conceptual Discussion on Alternative Transportation from a Systematic Literature Review
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Systematic Literature Review (PRISMA) on Alternative Transportation
2.1. Opportunities and Barriers for Improving Alternative Transportation Cases Around the Globe
2.2. Alternative Transport Services Cases in the World That Relate to Mobility Potentials
2.3. Governance in Alternative Transport Services Cases: Access to Transport Planning and Workers’ Stigmatization
2.4. Micro-Mobility Service’s Externalities for Regulation and Policy
Research Approaches | Global South | Global North |
---|---|---|
Main methodological focuses | Governance, barriers, and opportunities for mobility potential, transport accessibility, workers’ stigmatization, and internal organization of transport services | Travel efficiency, use patterns, user behavior and perception, market potential, technological improvement, and regulation and policy |
Main type of transport service | Motorcycle cab service | E-scooter service |
Main status of the transport service | Informal | Formal |
Service Policy and Regulation | Global South | Global North |
---|---|---|
Informal and Emerging Transportation | Policies and regulation should be designed with social participation and involve permanent monitoring of the service. | -- |
Policies should include revitalization of transport infrastructure, proper urban facilities and urban design, changes for sustainable vehicles, and fostering economic formal opportunities through competitiveness through individual and collective credit granting. | -- | |
Micro-mobility | It applies to some contexts of cities. | Policies and regulation should consider local and national governmental coordination, working according to cities’ experience, as well as with the companies that provide the service. |
It applies to some contexts of cities. | Decision-making should include vendors’ homogeneous datasets in cities that provide contextual accurate analysis results for territorial and environmental best practices. | |
It applies to some contexts of cities. | Governments should consider and challenge the environmental footprint of micro-mobility vehicles, changing the narrative of these to assure transport sustainability. Finally, policies and regulation should take account of the fact that companies compensate the city relative to their public space use. |
3. Conceptual Discussion on Alternative Transport Services
3.1. From Paratransit to Informal Transportation
3.2. Emerging Transportation and Micro-Mobility
Conceptual Differentiations | Global South | Global North |
---|---|---|
Paratransit | Modes that people usually create in response to a certain lack of mobility to close mobility loopholes in transportation systems; these are divided into the personal and the (in)formal services. | It applies to some contexts of cities. |
Informal transportation | Provides on-demand mobility, closing the mobility gap left by formal transport services and the non-satisfactory economic systems. | It applies to some contexts of cities. |
Emerging transportation | Paratransit characteristics that additionally involve a self-created transport service, mainly in response to historical social exclusion in a city. | -- |
Micro-mobility | It applies to some contexts of cities. | Shared electric micro-mobility refers to formal electrified services mostly created and administrated by transnational companies from the Global North that fulfill short, personalized trips at a city level. Some services that make use of (e-)cargo bikes and e-bikes fulfill home delivery and transportation of goods, diminish pollution emissions, and provide jobs. |
4. Conclusions
4.1. Research Approaches
- A considerable amount of the academic literature on micro-mobility tends to be based on topics related to travel efficiency, use patterns, user behavior and perception, market potential, technological improvement, and/or regulation and policy. On the other hand, numerous studies addressing informal transportation and emerging transportation primarily focus on the governance, barriers, and opportunities of mobility potential, transport accessibility, workers’ stigmatization, and/or internal organization of transport services.
- A considerable amount of academic literature on micro-mobility draws on cases in the Global North and on e-scooter services, wherein there seems to be an unclear juxtaposition between micro-mobility and e-scooter conception, even though electric micro-mobility is remarkably diverse around the world. Therefore, micro-mobility case studies in the Global South and about (e-)cargo bike and e-bike services are limited. In this case, governmental and/or NGO reports offer information about this phenomenon. On the other hand, numerous academic studies on informal transportation and emerging transportation draw on motorcycle cab services in the Global South.
4.2. Conceptual Differentiations
- Services of micro-mobility, informal transportation, and emerging transportation are ATSs (considered due to their sustainability, active mobility, and human-scale characteristics) because they are an alternative to conventional transportation means, especially for fulfilling short trips in cities.
- This research defines the emerging transportation concept by differentiating it from paratransit, which refers to the modes of transport that people usually create in response to a certain lack of mobility to close mobility loopholes in transportation systems, and these are divided into the personal and the (in)formal services. The emerging transportation also has those characteristics, but it additionally involves a self-created transport service, mainly in response to historical social exclusion in a city.
- Informal transportation provides on-demand mobility, also closing the mobility gap left by formal transport services and non-satisfactory economic systems.
- The emerging transportation characteristic of micro-mobility that current academic literature offers does not align with the conceptualization of emerging transportation provided in this research because the former does not offer a clear conceptual theory. Therefore, on the one hand, shared electric micro-mobility refers to formal electrified services mostly created and administrated by transnational companies from the Global North that fulfill short, personalized trips at a city level. Some services that make use of (e-)cargo bikes and e-bikes fulfill home delivery and transportation of goods, diminish pollution emissions, and provide jobs. On the other hand, non-electric micro-mobility mostly refers to cycling (bike) although not in a direct way. In other words, there is currently vast research on cycling both in the Global North and South, but this is not actively acknowledged as micro-mobility, since cycling is currently a clear and trendy term in the field of transport planning.
- Micro-mobility, informal transportation, and emerging transportation help people fulfill mobile potentials in terms of accessibility to services and products in cities.
- These mentioned conceptual differentiations help researchers avoid generalization of understandings within AT phenomena in the Global South and the Global North, focusing on the multidimensional contextual place.
4.3. Contextual Case Study Understandings for Service Policy and Regulation
- ATSs are context-dependent. This is an essential element to consider when planning and creating business models, policy, and regulation.
- Policies and regulation for informal and emerging transportation should be designed with social participation and involve permanent monitoring of the service. Additionally, the policies should include revitalization of transport infrastructure, proper urban facilities and urban design, changes for sustainable vehicles, and fostering economic formal opportunities through competitiveness by individual and collective credit granting.
- Policies and regulation for micro-mobility services should consider local and national governmental coordination, working according to cities’ experience, as well as with the companies that provide the service. From a technical perspective, decision-making should include vendors’ homogeneous datasets in cities that provide contextual accurate analysis results for territorial and environmental best practices. Additionally, governments should consider and challenge the environmental footprint of micro-mobility vehicles, changing the narrative of these to assure transport sustainability. Finally, policies and regulation should take account of that companies compensate the city relative to their public space use.
4.4. Research Limitations
4.5. Further Research on the Field of Study
Supplementary Materials
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Reis, J.; Costa, J.; Marques, P.; Pinto, F.S.; Mateus, R.J.G. Sustainable Transport: A Systematic Literature Review. In Flexible Automation and Intelligent Manufacturing: Establishing Bridges for More Sustainable Manufacturing Systems; Silva, F.J.G., Pereira, A.B., Campilho, R.D.S.G., Eds.; Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xia, T.; Zhang, Y.; Crabb, S.; Shah, P. Cobenefits of Replacing Car Trips with Alternative Transportation: A Review of Evidence and Methodological Issues. J. Environ. Public Health 2013, 2013, 797312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Allen, H.; Nolmark, H. Active Transportation, the Ultimate Low Carbon Way to Travel—A Review of International Research and Education. Front. Sustain. Cities 2022, 4, 824909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Batool, T.; Ross, V.; Blerk, J.V.; Neven, A.; Dendale, P.; Janssens, D.; Wets, G.; Brijs, K. Promoting Sustainable Transportation: A Transtheoretical Examination of Active Transport Modes. Sustainability 2024, 16, 472. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Musselwhite, C. Jan Gehl: Human-Centred Planning. In The Palgrave Handbook of Global Sustainability; Brinkmann, R., Ed.; Palgrave-Macmillan: London, UK, 2023; pp. 1–10. [Google Scholar]
- Finck Carrales, J.C.; Suárez-Krabbem, J. Introduction: Horizons of possibility and scientific research: Whose problems, whose solutions? In Transdisciplinary Thinking from the Global South: Whose Problems, Whose Solutions? Finck Carrales, J.C.F., Suárez-Krabbe, J., Eds.; Series of Decoloniality and New Postcolonialism; Routledge: London, UK, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Brignardello-Petersen, R.; Santesso, N.; Guyatt, G.H. Systematic reviews of the literature: An introduction to current methods. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2025, 194, 536–542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sharifi-Tehrani, M. Systematic Literature Review. In Encyclopedia of Tourism; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2025; Available online: https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-030-74923-1_911 (accessed on 3 June 2025).
- Finck Carrales, J.C. Transmodern philosophy of science in a case of informal transportation in Mexico City: Local ontology and epistemology for transport planning. In Transdisciplinary Thinking from the Global South: Whose Problems, Whose Solutions? Finck Carrales, J.C.F., Suárez-Krabbe, J., Eds.; Series of Decoloniality and New Postcolonialisms; Routledge: London, UK, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Agarwal, P. Place. In Handbook of Behavioral and Cognitive Geography; Montello, D.R., Ed.; Edward Elgar Publishing Limited: Cheltenham, UK, 2018; pp. 291–306. [Google Scholar]
- Cresswell, T. Place: An Introduction; John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated: New York, NY, USA, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Wang, D. Place, context and activity–travel behavior: Introduction to the special section on geographies of activity–travel behavior. J. Transp. Geogr. 2015, 47, 84–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Czeglédy, A. Getting around town: Transportation and the built environment in post-apartheid South Africa. City Soc. 2004, 16, 63–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hyrapiet, S.; Greiner, A.L. Calcutta’s hand–pulled rickshaws: Cultural politics and place making in a globalizing city. Geogr. Rev. 2012, 102, 407–426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cui, C.; Zhang, Y. Integration of Shared Micromobility into Public Transit: A Systematic Literature Review with Grey Literature. Sustainability 2024, 16, 3557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dulskaia, I.; Bellini, F. New Business Models and Partnerships for Sustainable Mobility and Transport Sector. In Capacity Building in Local Authorities for Sustainable Transport Planning; Woodcock, A., Saunders, J., Fadden-Hopper, K., O’Connell, E., Eds.; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2023; pp. 279–302. [Google Scholar]
- Guyader, H.; Friman, M.; Olsson, L.E. Shared Mobility: Evolving Practices for Sustainability. Sustainability 2021, 13, 12148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kao, P.J.; Busquet, C.; Lubello, V.; Meta, M.; van den Heuvel, C. Review of Business Models for New Mobility Services; Horizon 2020-Gecko; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Petzer, B.J.M.; Wieczorek, A.; Verbong, G. Collaborative Business Models and Platforms in Shared Mobility Transitions: The Case of Bikeshare Integration. In Business Models for Sustainability Transitions: How Organisations Contribute to Societal Transformation; Aagaard, A., Lüdeke-Freund, F., Wells, P., Eds.; Palgrave-Macmillan: London, UK, 2021; pp. 191–228. [Google Scholar]
- Turoń, K. Open Innovation Business Model as an Opportunity to Enhance the Development of Sustainable Shared Mobility Industry. J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex. 2022, 8, 37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, Y.; Kasraian, D.; van Wesemael, P. Built Environment and Micro-Mobility: A Systematic Review of Recent Innovations. J. Transp. Land Use 2023, 16, 293–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Reck, D.J.; Axhausen, K.W. Who uses shared micro-mobility services? Empirical evidence from Zurich, Switzerland. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2021, 94, 102803. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mölenberg, F.J.M.; Panter, J.; Burdorf, A.; van Lenthe, F.J. A systematic review of the effect of infrastructural interventions to promote cycling: Strengthening causal inference from observational data. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2019, 16, 93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Abduljabbar, R.L.; Liyanage, S.; Dia, H. The role of micro-mobility in shaping sustainable cities: A systematic literature review. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2021, 92, 102734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Şengül, B.; Mostofi, H. Impacts of e-micromobility on the sustainability of urban transportation—A systematic review. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 5851. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tucho, G.T. A Review on the Socio-Economic Impacts of Informal Transportation and Its Complementarity to Address Equity and Achieve Sustainable Development Goals. J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 2022, 69, 28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Valentini, D.; Wangel, J.; Holmgren, S. Representations of urban cycling in sustainability transitions research: A review. Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. 2023, 15, 28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, L.; Sahlqvist, S.; McMinn, A.; Griffin, S.J.; Ogilvie, D. Interventions to promote cycling: Systematic review. BMJ 2010, 341, c5293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Page, M.J.; McKenzie, J.E.; Bossuyt, P.M.; Boutron, I.; Hoffmann, T.C.; Mulrow, C.D.; Shamseer, L.; Tetzlaff, J.M.; Akl, E.A.; Brennan, S.E.; et al. The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews. Int. J. Surg. 2021, 88, 105906. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- du Preez, D.; Zuidgeest, M.; Behrens, R. A Quantitative Clustering Analysis of Paratransit Route Typology and Operating Attributes in Cape Town. J. Transp. Geogr. 2019, 80, 102493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Falchetta, G.; Noussan, M.; Hammad, A.T. Comparing Paratransit in Seven Major African Cities: An Accessibility and Network Analysis. J. Transp. Geogr. 2021, 94, 103131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Faulin, J.; Grasman, S.; Juan, A.; Hirsch, P. (Eds.) Sustainable Transportation and Smart Logistics: Decision-Making Models and Solutions; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Garnier, C.; Trépanier, M.; Morency, C. Adjusting Dwell Time for Paratransit Services. Transp. Res. Rec. 2020, 2674, 638–648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tuan, V.A.; Mateo-Babiano, I.B. Motorcycle taxi service in Vietnam—Its socioeconomic impacts and policy considerations. J. East. Asia Soc. Transp. Stud. 2013, 10, 13–28. [Google Scholar]
- Al-Hasan, A.Z.; Momoh, S.; Eboreime, L. Urban poverty and informal motorcycle transport services in a Nigerian intermediate settlement: A synthesis of operative motives and satisfaction. Urban Plan. Transp. Res. 2015, 3, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blimpo, M.P. Kinship, trust and moral hazard in the motorcycle-taxi market in Togo and Benin. J. Afr. Econ. 2015, 24, 173–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Diaz Olvera, L.; Guézéré, A.; Plat, D.; Pochet, P. Earning a living, but at what price? Being a motorcycle taxi driver in a Sub-Saharan African city. J. Transp. Geogr. 2016, 55, 165–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hagen, J.X.; Pardo, C.P.; Valente, J.B. Motivations for motorcycle use for urban travel in Latin America: A qualitative study. Transp. Policy 2016, 49, 93–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hasselwander, M.; Bigotte, J.F. Mobility as a Service (MaaS) in the Global South: Research Findings, Gaps, Directions. Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. 2023, 15, 27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mbara, T.; Dumba, S.; Mukwashi, T. Multi-stakeholder dialogue on formal and informal forms of public transport in Harare, Zimbabwe: Convergence or divergence perspective. J. Transp. Supply Chain. Manag. 2014, 8, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Menzel, A. Between ex-combatization and opportunities for peace: The double-edged qualities of motorcycle-taxi driving in urban postwar Sierra Leone. Afr. Today 2011, 58, 97–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ogunrinola, I.O. Informal self-employment and poverty alleviation: Empirical evidence from motorcycle taxi riders in Nigeria. Int. J. Econ. Financ. 2011, 3, 176–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rizzo, M. “Life is war”: Informal transport workers and neoliberalism in Tanzania 1998–2009. Dev. Change 2011, 42, 1179–1205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kumarage, A.S.; Bandara, Y.M.; Munasinghe, D. Analysis of the economic and social parameters of the three-wheeler taxi service in Sri Lanka. Res. Transp. Econ. 2011, 29, 395–400. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Berrones-Sanz, L.D. The Working Conditions of Motorcycle Taxi Drivers in Tláhuac, Mexico City. J. Transp. Health 2018, 8, 73–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lala, A.; Suparman, E.; Purnawan, A. Legal Protection of Online Taxi-Bike Driver from Work Accident in Indonesia. Sch. Int. J. Law Crime Justice 2022, 5, 223–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Munishi, E.J.; Hamidu, K.M. Urban Crime and Livelihood Implications among the Motorcycle Taxi Riders in Dar Es Salaam City- Tanzania. Int. J. Res. Bus. Soc. Sci. 2022, 11, 246–254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cervero, R. Paratransit in Southeast Asia: A market response to poor roads? Rev. Urban Reg. Dev. Stud. 1992, 90, 3–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alimo, P.K.; Rahim, A.B.A.; Lartey-Young, G.; Ehebrecht, D.; Wang, L.; Ma, W. Investigating the Increasing Demand and Formal Regulation of Motorcycle Taxis in Ghana. J. Transp. Geogr. 2022, 103, 103398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Diaz Olvera, L.; Plat, D.; Pochet, P. Looking for the Obvious: Motorcycle Taxi Services in Sub-Saharan African Cities. J. Transp. Geogr. 2020, 88, 102476. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kassa, F. Informal transport and its effects in the developing world—A case study of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. J. Transp. Lit. 2014, 8, 113–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Golub, A.; Balassiano, R.; Amaral Ferreira, E. Regulation of the informal transport sector in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Welfare impacts and policy analysis. Transportation 2009, 36, 601–616. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goodfellow, T. Taming the “rogue” sector: Studying state effectiveness in Africa through informal transport politics. Comp. Politics 2015, 47, 127–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kaufmann, V. Re-Thinking Mobility: Contemporary Sociology; Ashgate: Aldershot, UK, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Talamini, G.; Ferreira, D.P. An Informal Transportation as a Feeder of the Rapid Transit System. Spatial Analysis of the E-Bike Taxi Service in Shenzhen, China. Transp. Res. Interdiscip. Perspect. 2019, 1, 100002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Oloo, F. Mapping Rural Road Networks from Global Positioning System (GPS) Trajectories of Motorcycle Taxis in Sigomre Area, Siaya County, Kenya. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf. 2018, 7, 309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cervero, R.; Golub, A. Informal transport: A global perspective. Transp. Policy 2007, 14, 445–457. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Finck Carrales, J.C. Governance through storytelling and possible futures: Motorcycle-cab service planning in Mexico City. J. Environ. Plan. Manag. 2024, 67, 291–308. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lozano Paredes, L.H. Informal Transportation and Emergent Orders in the Latin American Context: Towards a New Conceptualization of Urban Planning in the Global South. Cosm. Taxis 2020, 8, 57–75. Available online: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3698423 (accessed on 28 June 2022).
- Ackrill, R.; Igudia, E.; Olusanya, O.; Oyalowo, B. Street Level Bureaucrats, Policy Entrepreneurship, and Discretion in Enforcing Bans on Motorcycle Taxis in Lagos, Nigeria. Eur. Policy Anal. 2023, 9, 440–464. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Finck Carrales, J.C. Transporte Emergente en Colonias Periféricas de la Ciudad de México: El Caso de los Bici y Moto-Taxis en La Conchita Zapotitlán, Tláhuac. Master’s Thesis, Universidad Iberoamericana, Ciudad de México, Mexico, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Guillen, M.D.; Ishida, H.; Okamoto, N. Is the use of informal public transport modes in developing countries habitual? An empirical study in Davao City, Philippines. Transp. Policy 2012, 26, 31–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP). The Electric Assist: Leveraging e-Bikes and e-Scooters for More Livable Cities; Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP): Nairobi, Kenya, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Eccarius, T.; Lu, C. Adoption intentions for micro-mobility—Insights from electric scooter sharing in Taiwan. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2020, 84, 102327. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kopplin, C.S.; Brand, B.M.; Reichenberger, Y. Consumer acceptance of shared e-scooters for urban and short-distance mobility. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2021, 91, 102680. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- OUH Odense Universiteshospital. Skader ved Brug af El-Løbehjul; Pressemeddelelse fra Ulykkes Analyse Gruppen; OUH Odense Universiteshospital: Odense, Denmark, 2019. [Google Scholar]
- Basky, G. Spike in e-scooter injuries linked to ride-share boom. CMAJ Can. Med. Assoc. J. 2020, 192, E195–E196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bronér, E.Ø. Nye Tal: Hvad Køber de Danske Forbrugere Online? Dansk Industri. 2020. Available online: https://www.danskindustri.dk/brancher/di-handel/nyhedsarkiv/nyheder/2020/12/nye-tal-hvad-kober-de-danske-forbrugere-online/ (accessed on 15 May 2021).
- CPH Post. Wolt’s Revolt: Couriers Upset with New Bonus Scheme That Has Forced Some to Work 36-Hour Weekends. 2021. Available online: https://cphpost.dk/?p=122652 (accessed on 15 May 2021).
- Ferri, A. E-scooter safety. Prof. Saf. 2019, 64, 10. Available online: https://search-proquest-com.ep.fjernadgang.kb.dk/docview/2301470349?accountid=13607 (accessed on 20 June 2022).
- Pröschold, J. Nemlig.com Straffer Chauffører Med Bøder for Små Forsinkelser. Politiken. 2021. Available online: https://politiken.dk/danmark/forbrug/art8133447/Nemlig.coms-b%C3%B8desystem-straffer-chauff%C3%B8rer-for-tre-minutters-forsinkelser (accessed on 2 June 2025).
- Mitra, R.; Hess, P.M. Who are the potential users of shared e-scooters? An examination of socio-demographic, attitudinal and environmental factors. Travel Behav. Soc. 2021, 23, 100–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bai, S.; Jiao, J. Dockless E-scooter usage patterns and urban built environments: A comparison study of Austin, TX, and Minneapolis, MN. Travel Behav. Soc. 2020, 20, 264–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fitt, H.; Curl, A. The early days of shared micromobility: A social practices approach. J. Transp. Geogr. 2020, 86, 102779. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Modu Magazine. No Place to Place: Full Record of China’s Shared Bike Graveyards in 20 Cities. 2019. Available online: https://www.modumag.com/focus/no-place-to-place-full-record-of-chinas-shared-bike-graveyards-in-20-cities/ (accessed on 29 March 2023).
- The Atlantic. The Bike-Share Oversupply in China: Huge Piles of Abandoned and Broken Bicycles. 2018. Available online: https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2018/03/bike-share-oversupply-in-china-huge-piles-of-abandoned-and-broken-bicycles/556268/ (accessed on 29 March 2023).
- Lazarus, J.; Pourquier, J.C.; Feng, F.; Hammel, H.; Shaheen, S. Micromobility evolution and expansion: Understanding how docked and dockless bikesharing models complement and compete—A case study of San Francisco. J. Transp. Geogr. 2020, 84, 102620. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zakhem, M.; Smith-Colin, J. Micromobility implementation challenges and opportunities: Analysis of e-scooter parking and high-use corridors. Transp. Res. Part D Transp. Environ. 2021, 101, 103082. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- City of Chicago. E-Scooter Pilot Evaluation. 2020. Available online: https://www.cnt.org/sites/default/files/publications/Scooter_Report_FINAL.pdf (accessed on 15 May 2022).
- Portland Bureau of Transportation. E-Scooter Findings Report. 2018. Available online: https://www.portland.gov/transportation/regulatory/escooterpdx/2018-e-scooter-findings-report (accessed on 2 June 2025).
- SEMOVI. Análisis Sobre la Operación Piloto de Bicicletas Sin Anclaje y Monopatines Eléctricos. 2019. Available online: https://semovi.cdmx.gob.mx/storage/app/media/Reporte%20SITIS%202019.pdf (accessed on 2 June 2025).
- Jørgensen, A.J.; Kallesen, M.K.; Mathiesen, L.R. Mikromobilitet i Gladsaxe Erhvervskvarter: Artikel. Proc. Annu. Transp. Conf. Aalb. Univ. 2021, 28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Agbiboa, D.E. Transport, Transgression and Politics in African Cities; Routledge: London, UK, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Freudendal-Pedersen, M. Whose commons are mobilities spaces? The case of Copenhagen cyclists. ACME 2015, 14, 598. [Google Scholar]
- Aworemi, J.R.; Salami, A.O.; Adewoye, J.O.; Ilori, M.O. Impact of socio-economic characteristics on formal and informal public transport demands in Kwara state, Nigeria. Afr. J. Bus. Manag. 2008, 2, 72–76. [Google Scholar]
- Truong, L.T.; Tay, R.; Nguyen, H.T.T. Investigating Health Issues of Motorcycle Taxi Drivers: A Case Study of Vietnam. J. Transp. Health 2021, 20, 100999. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cervero, R. State Roles in Providing Affordable Mass Transport Services for Low-Income Residents; Transport for Society, International Transport Forum Discussion Paper, No. 2011-17; OECD: Paris, France, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Figueroa, O. Transporte urbano y globalización. Políticas y efectos en América Latina. Rev. Eure 2005, 31, 41–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Holston, J. Insurgent citizenship in an era of global urban peripheries. City Soc. 2009, 21, 245–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lizarraga, C. Expansión metropolitana y movilidad: El caso de Caracas. Rev. Eure 2012, 38, 99–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sopranzetti, C. Owners of the map: Mobility and mobilization among motorcycle taxi drivers in Bangkok. City Soc. 2014, 26, 120–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Urry, J. Social networks, mobile lives and social inequalities. J. Transp. Geogr. 2012, 21, 24–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jaime, E.; Campos, P. Informalidad y (Sub)desarrollo; Ediciones Cal y Arena: Ciudad de México, Mexico, 2002. [Google Scholar]
- Sheller, M. Racialized mobility transitions in Philadelphia: Connecting urban sustainability and transport justice. City Soc. 2015, 27, 70–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sheller, M. The new mobilities paradigm for a live sociology. Curr. Sociol. 2014, 62, 789–811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Urry, J.; Grieco, M. Mobilities: New Perspectives on Transport and Society; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Kaufmann, V.; Canzler, W. Tracing Mobilities: Towards Cosmopolitan Perspective; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Dediu, H. The Micromobility Definition. 2019. Available online: https://micromobility.io/news/the-micromobility-definition (accessed on 13 May 2024).
- Gruber, J.; Kihm, A.; Lenz, B. A new vehicle for urban freight? An ex-ante evaluation of electric cargo bikes in courier services. Res. Transp. Bus. Manag. 2014, 11, 53–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gruber, J.; Kihm, A. Reject or embrace? Messengers and electric cargo bikes. Transp. Res. Procedia 2016, 12, 900–910. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Van Duin, J.H.R.; de Goffau, W.; Wiegmans, B.; Tavasszy, L.A.; Saes, M. Improving home delivery efficiency by using principles of address intelligence for B2C deliveries. Transp. Res. Procedia 2016, 12, 14–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ávila Forcada, S.; Martínez, I.M. Cycling to Commute in the Global South: Not Idiosyncrasy, but Infrastructure; University of Colorado: Boulder, CO, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Finck Carrales, J.C. From Paratransit to Emerging Transportation and Micro-Mobility: A Conceptual Discussion on Alternative Transportation from a Systematic Literature Review. Future Transp. 2025, 5, 81. https://doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp5030081
Finck Carrales JC. From Paratransit to Emerging Transportation and Micro-Mobility: A Conceptual Discussion on Alternative Transportation from a Systematic Literature Review. Future Transportation. 2025; 5(3):81. https://doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp5030081
Chicago/Turabian StyleFinck Carrales, Juan Carlos. 2025. "From Paratransit to Emerging Transportation and Micro-Mobility: A Conceptual Discussion on Alternative Transportation from a Systematic Literature Review" Future Transportation 5, no. 3: 81. https://doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp5030081
APA StyleFinck Carrales, J. C. (2025). From Paratransit to Emerging Transportation and Micro-Mobility: A Conceptual Discussion on Alternative Transportation from a Systematic Literature Review. Future Transportation, 5(3), 81. https://doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp5030081