Child Enjoyment and Parental Satisfaction with Autistic Children’s Participation in Active and Sedentary Activity Configurations

Abstract

This research used proxy reports and questionnaire-based data to explore characteristics related to participation among autistic children. The research aimed to explore child enjoyment and parental satisfaction in different activity configurations, including active and sedentary pursuits and activities in which children participate alone or in groups. Parents/guardians (n = 100) of autistic children aged 4–15 years completed questionnaire-based assessments of their autistic child’s motor skills, social skills, and characteristics of participation. Regression analyses were completed to elucidate the factors that may contribute to a child’s enjoyment of and parental satisfaction with the child’s participation in the different activity configurations. A strong positive correlation was found between motor and social skills, and for motor and social skills in concert with the different activity configurations. Regression analyses found that the social skills of autistic children were related to participation in most of the activity configurations for both the child’s enjoyment and parental satisfaction in participation. Other results indicated that lower social skills were more strongly related to child enjoyment and parental satisfaction, and that the highest enjoyment and satisfaction scores were found for the sedentary and individual activities. These results reinforce the impact of social skills on participation in various activities, and the need for early intervention to promote skill development among autistic children.

1. Introduction

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is one of the most well-known and increasingly diagnosed neurodevelopmental disorders, with an estimated prevalence of 1 in 100 children being diagnosed worldwide [1]. Higher figures have been reported in national reports. For example, one of every fifty children ages 1–17 have been diagnosed with ASD in Canada [2]. ASD is diagnosed according to persistent difficulties with social and communication skills as well as limited interests and repetitive and/or restrictive behaviors [3].

While motor challenges are not currently recognized among the diagnostic criteria for ASD [4,5,6], delays in motor functioning appear to be consistent among autistic children compared to similarly aged typically developing children [5,7,8]. Recent research has found that autistic children were at a 22 times greater relative risk for experiencing difficulties with motor skills compared to the general populace; the relative risk increases to 24.8 for autistic children with the most significant social communication challenges [9]. Motor skills are critical to promoting participation in activities that include social interaction [5,10]. Indeed, motor competence has been found to be significantly related to social skill development among autistic children [9,11,12,13].

Both social skills, particularly difficulties with communication, social reciprocity, and limited interests, as well as challenges in the gross and fine motor domains have been found to be equal barriers to participation (i.e., “involvement in a life situation” [14]) among autistic individuals [15]. It has been suggested that there is a positive relationship between motor and social skills [16,17,18], with fine motor skills (e.g., manual dexterity) having a stronger relationship with social skills compared to gross motor skills [17,19].

Skill development in a variety of domains of life (e.g., physical, social, emotional) can be developed through participation in different activities [20]. Involvement in varied activities is more strongly predicted by the functional abilities of the child, and is not necessarily diagnosis-specific [15,21]. Accounting for the broad clinical representations of ASD, it is expected that autistic children are likely to experience limited participation in social activities. However, this is not unique to social activities, as autistic individuals generally participate less in physical, recreational, and informal activities as well [15].

Participation in physical activity has been identified as an effective intervention for autistic individuals [22]. Despite this, there remains sparse research related to the levels of physical activity among autistic children [23]. Parents have demonstrated positive attitudes toward participation in physical activity but have prioritized formal therapies and interventions to promote interpersonal skills and behavioral management [11]. Parents may have competing priorities (such as family life, schooling, therapies), which can lead to lower participation in physical activities, and thus poor development of motor skills during childhood [11].

Autistic children tend to spend more time engaged in sedentary behaviors (particularly those associated with screen time), and spend less time engaged in physical activity than typically developing individuals [24]. Among the activities that autistic children reported the most positive enjoyment of were sedentary activities, such as playing with technology, video games, and computer games [25,26]. A preference for these activities is likely related to the lower requirement for social interaction, particularly face-to-face interactions [25]. Children in primary school are more likely to spend more time engaged in screen time and general sedentary behaviors than secondary school-aged autistic individuals [27]. Secondary school-aged autistic individuals have been shown to exceed the screen time recommendations more consistently on weekends, while primary-school aged children demonstrate no difference between weekday and weekend screen time activities [27].

To our knowledge, only one study has found that sedentary behavior patterns among autistic children did not differ from their typically developing peers [28]. It is important to note, however, that this study targeted children aged 5–6 years, and differences in participation (i.e., levels and diversity of activities) are likely exacerbated as children age. Indeed, differences in participation patterns among typically developing and autistic children become more pronounced around age 11 years [29].

As children age, the level of engagement in physical activity declines [24,27,30], despite reports of positive self-perception toward motor abilities among autistic children [25]. A recent study found that 100% of primary school autistic children were satisfying the WHO recommendations for physical activity (approximately 104 min of moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity), with only 34% of secondary school-aged individuals satisfying the recommendations (approximately 56 min per day) [27]. Similarly, individuals aged 15–17 years have demonstrated significantly lower participation in physical activity compared to younger autistic individuals [30].

Participation patterns of children outside of school activities may be restricted. Most activities for autistic children take place at home, and are predominantly individual, except for engaging with a parent or other family members [15,31]. Self-reports by autistic children have outlined that social interaction and social play are among the least enjoyable activities, and that many of the children had unique balances between social interaction and time spent in solo activities [25]. When participation in social activities involved peers with ASD, autistic individuals had more positive perceptions toward participation, which could be related to similar abilities and shared social preferences [26].

A limited understanding of how to interact with peers (e.g., executive functioning [11] and perspective taking skills including cooperative play, reciprocal conversation, and empathy [20]) is a frequent experience of autistic children and contributes to activities that are increasingly individual in nature [28]. Autistic children have specified that they want to be around other children and develop reciprocal relationships but are limited by the skills necessary to develop and maintain these friendships [25].

Parents and children have identified that they have different interpretations of what it means to meaningfully participate in different activities [32]. Similarly, autistic children are likely to demonstrate different involvement and participation characteristics compared to their typically developing peers [33]. The experiences of autistic children and their willingness to participate in various activities is largely heterogeneous in nature and varies between individuals [34].

The relationship between individual (e.g., abilities, skills, preferences), family (values, activity prioritization) and environmental/systemic (supports, ASD training, available programs) conditions all influence the participatory patterns of autistic children, in social, physical, recreational, and leisure activities [11,24,28,31,35]. The conditional nature of participation (e.g., the child’s competence and confidence with the activities, motivation to participate, the demands of the activity, and freedom of choice in the activity) is a prevalent theme influencing participation for autistic children [34].

Interestingly, outside of the individual, different contextual factors have been found to predict participation in more physically demanding activities, including the availability of resources, the interpersonal relationships (e.g., between the instructor and the child) and parental involvement [35]. Most notable in this research, parent attendance and involvement has been found to be predictive of autistic children’s experiences in social and physically active activities. This suggests that parental involvement may positively influence the types of activities in which their autistic children engage [35]. When parents worked jointly with program instructors, this improved quality experiences for children with developmental disabilities (such as ASD) [36]. Parents/caregivers are able to supply program instructors with valuable knowledge about their child’s abilities and interests, and how these could be used to engage their child in activity and/or intervention programming [36].

Considering the different interpretations of participation that may be experienced by parents and their autistic children [32], the current research aimed to elucidate participation patterns among autistic children in sedentary and active individual and group activities. Differences in each child’s enjoyment of and parental satisfaction with the participation of the child in the different activity configurations were considered, while also examining the relationships of factors noted in the literature as potentially influential [25,27,37,38,39,40] (i.e., child social and motor skills, parent and child age and gender, and childbirth order).

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

Participants in the current study consisted of the caregivers of autistic children between the ages of 4–15 years. The initial pre-screening resulted in 175 prospective participants, with 107 meeting the eligibility criteria. Of these, seven were removed for incomplete responses (e.g., an entire measure or more was not completed). Descriptive information about the caregivers and their children was collected. To account for the wide age range of autistic children, the participants were divided into specific age groups for analysis. Descriptive information for all of the participants included in this study (n = 100) can be found in

Table 1. Participant Descriptive Information.

Characteristic	Frequency (%) or Mean (SD)
Caregiver Age
Younger than 25	6
26–35	29
36–45	38
Older than 45	27
Caregiver Gender
ID as female	75
ID as male	25
Child Age	8.98 (3.49)
Below 5	10
age 5–8	30
age 8–10	20
age 10–12	14
age 12–15	20
age 15–18	6
Child Gender
ID as female	42
ID as male	58
Child Birth Order
Only Child	17
Oldest Child	36
Second Child	28
Third Child	13
Fourth or Younger	6
n = 100

.

2.2. Procedures

Following ethical clearance by the institutional research board (REB#18-127), Prolific, an online research recruitment tool, was used to recruit parents/caregivers of autistic children to participate in this study. Potential participants were identified using pre-established screeners: (1) Location (all countries available), (2) Study distribution (standard sample), (3) First language (English), (4) Children (Yes), and (5) Living with biological child (Yes). Those eligible and interested were subsequently invited to complete a short, researcher curated online questionnaire, to confirm eligibility: (1) older than 18 years of age, (2) a caregiver of a child with ASD between 4–15 years old, and (3) written confirmation of the age of the child. A custom allowlist was used to invite participants who met inclusion criteria to participate in the full, online study. Participants repeated eligibility questions alongside additional descriptive questions (e.g., caregiver and child age and gender, and birth order of the child), and four validated questionnaires to assess motor skills (the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ) [41]), emotional and social skills (the Emotion Regulation and Social Skills Questionnaire (ERSSQ) [42]), and participation (the Activities Questionnaire (AQ) [43], and the Child Participation Questionnaire (CPQ) [44]).

Motor skills were assessed with the DCDQ [41], which comprises 15-items grouped into three distinct factors (Control During Movement, Fine Motor/Handwriting, and General Coordination). Caregivers provided proxy reports of their child’s motor skills based on a 5-point Likert scale (1: not at all like your child, 5: extremely like your child). A total score was computed by summing the three factor scores, which was subsequently used to identify whether the child’s score was an “indication of, or suspect for, Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)” or “probably not DCD” based on chronological age at the time of questionnaire completion. Here, it is important to note that DCD is a motor disorder within the broader category of neurodevelopmental disorders, diagnosed when a child has motor coordination below expectations based on chronological age, but not relating to a medical condition or disease (e.g., cerebral palsy). Difficulties with either gross or fine motor skills, or both, interfere with activities of daily living and/or academic achievements [3].

The ERSSQ [42] provided a measure of social skills. The ERSSQ [42] employs 27 behaviors that are compiled to a single score. Caregivers reported the frequency of child engagement with these behaviors on a 5-point Likert scale (0: never, 4: always). To our knowledge there are no categorical classifications for ERSSQ scores. Therefore, scores in the current study were grouped according to the average score of the collected results: +/− 2 SD from the average score, and +/− 1 SD from the average score.

Participation was assessed through the AQ [43] and CPQ [44]. Caregivers were asked to complete each scale using the specific Likert scale for each to assess their child’s pleasure in participating (1: no pleasure, 6: much pleasure), and parental/caregiver satisfaction (1: not at all satisfied, 6: very satisfied). Each scale has specific subscales for types of activities (e.g., education, social participation, play, leisure, activities of daily living (ADL), and instrumental ADL (IADL)). For the purposes of this research, these subscales were not considered, and all activities were divided into four specific subgroups: Sedentary-Individual, Sedentary-Group, Active-Individual, and Active-Group. These subgroups were assigned to both the AQ and CPQ individually. The CPQ activity subscales of ADL and IADL were not included in the subgroups that are analyzed in the present study. This is due to the nature of these activities as self-care and/or household chores, which could not be accurately classified in any of the subgroups.

2.3. Data Analysis

The data were analyzed using JASP statistical software (version 0.18.1). DCDQ and ERSSQ total scores were computed. The Likert data for the participation scales were averaged according to the specified subgroups. Correlations were run to assess the associations between DCDQ total scores, ERSSQ scores, and the subgroup scores for participation. Subsequently, children were categorized based on the likelihood of DCD (i.e., “likely DCD” or “unlikely DCD”), and grouped according to the standard deviations of the ERSSQ. Where missing data were found, any responses to participation questionnaires were not included in the Likert data (e.g., they were deemed “not applicable” or 0), as it was assumed that no response meant that the child did not participate in that activity. Multiple regressions were run for each of the participation subgroups, with motor skills and social skills (as assessed by the DCDQ and ERSSQ groups), parental age and gender, child age (according to the groups described in the participant section), child gender, and birth order input as independent variables, and each of the subgroups as dependent measures. Independent variables were selected based on prior literature indicating their potential influence on participation outcomes [25,27,37,38,39,40]. Regressions were run for two conditions on each of the subgroupings: child enjoyment of the activity, and parental satisfaction with their child’s participation. Independent regressions were run for each of the subgroups due to the unique nature of each of the activity classifications (e.g., there is no overlap in activities between the Sedentary-Individual and Sedentary-Active subgroups, therefore it may be inappropriate to combine them for analysis). One-way ANOVAs were run as post hoc analyses to determine within-group differences for significant associations.

Assumption testing of each of the subgroups revealed the independence of residuals, as assessed by Durbin–Watson statistics between 1.68–2.27. There was no evidence of multicollinearity, as assessed by tolerance values greater than 0.1 for each of the subgroups. There were no studentized deleted residuals greater than +/−3, and no Cook’s distance values greater than 1. There was homoscedasticity, as assessed by a visual inspection of the plots.

3. Results

3.1. Correlations

Correlations among motor skills (DCDQ) and social skills (ERSSQ) and the subgroups were run and can be found in

Table 2. Correlations among DCDQ, social skills scores, and participation subgroups.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
1. DCDQ	-
2. ERSSQ	0.455 ***	-
3. Sed Ind CE	0.328 ***	0.448 ***	-
4. Sed Grp CE	0.319 ***	0.474 ***	0.701 ***	-
5. Act Ind CE	0.456 ***	0.261 **	0.491 ***	0.442 ***	-
6. Act Grp CE	0.263 **	0.427 ***	0.542 ***	0.721 ***	0.593 ***	-
7. Sed Ind PS	0.315 ***	0.381 ***	0.822 ***	0.525 ***	0.357 ***	0.356 ***	-
8. Sed Grp PS	0.270 **	0.423 ***	0.603 ***	0.767 ***	0.265 **	0.457 ***	0.691 ***	-
9. Act Ind PS	0.474 ***	0.171	0.351 ***	0.300 **	0.783 ***	0.376 ***	0.433 ***	0.351 ***	-
10. Act Grp PS	0.311 **	0.387 ***	0.458 ***	0.586 ***	0.465 ***	0.711 ***	0.548 ***	0.713 ***	0.514 ***	-
Mean	36.38	45.03	4.410	3.288	3.678	3.072	4.568	3.584	4.065	3.228
SD	11.14	13.4	0.85	1.017	1.275	0.834	0.998	1.098	1.315	0.834
Skew	0.094	−0.069	−0.435	0.389	0.077	0.036	−0.456	0.390	0.322	0.243
Min/Max	15–75	0–108	1–6	1–6	1–6	1–6	1–6	1–6	1–6	1–6

Note: DCDQ = Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire, ERSSQ = Emotional Regulation and Social Skills Questionnaire; Sed = Sedentary; Act = Active; Ind = Individual; Grp = Group; CE = Child Enjoyment; PS = Parental Satisfaction. ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

. All of the correlations were found to be significant, demonstrating strong positive associations (i.e., range from 0.26 to 0.78, indicating medium to large positive correlations when evaluated using Cohen’s effect size criteria) between motor and social skills, between motor skills and the subgroups for participation, and between social skills and the participation subgroupings.

3.2. Child Enjoyment in Participation

Multiple linear regressions were run for each of the subgroups (Sedentary-Individual, Sedentary-Group, Active-Individual, and Active-Group) based on child enjoyment responses in the AQ and CPQ.

Table 3. Multiple regression for Child Enjoyment in Participation.

	Sedentary Individual	Sedentary Group	Active Individual	Active Group
Intercept
B(SE)	3.304 (0.639) ***	1.61 (0.746) *	3.613 (0.979) ***	1.604 (0.611) **
ΔR2	0.091	0.137	0.055	0.140
DCDQ
B(SE)	0.199 (0.313)	0.022 (0.366)	0.475 (0.480)	−0.273 (0.299)
p value	0.527	0.953	0.324	0.363
ERSSQ
B(SE)	0.322 (0.088)	0.462 (0.103)	0.272 (0.135)	0.382 (0.084)
p value	<0.001 ***	<0.001 ***	0.04 *	<0.001 ***
Parent Age
B(SE)	−0.061 (0.085)	0.011 (0.100)	−0.099 (0.131)	−0.061 (0.082)
p value	0.475	0.911	0.449	0.458
Parent Gender
B(SE)	−0.154 (0.200)	0.021 (0.233)	−0.689 (0.306)	0.220 (0.191)
p value	0.442	0.929	0.026 *	0.251
Child Age
B(SE)	0.017 (0.020)	−0.013 (0.023)	0.036 (0.030)	0.003 (0.019)
p value	0.384	0.582	0.233	0.869
Child Gender
B(SE)	−0.018 (0.150)	0.027 (0.175)	−0.082 (0.229)	0.077 (0.143)
p value	0.906	0.879	0.723	0.591
Birth Order
B(SE)	0.045 (0.080)	0.012 (0.093)	−0.103 (0.123)	0.099 (0.077)
p value	0.573	0.902	0.404	0.201

Note: DCDQ = Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire, ERSSQ = Emotional Regulation and Social Skills Questionnaire, Model = Enter; B = unstandardized regression coefficient; SE = standard error of the coefficient; R² = coefficient of determination. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

provides full details of the regression models for each subgroup. One-way ANOVAs were run as post hoc analyses to determine the within-group differences for significant associations within each subgroup.

The multiple linear regression for child enjoyment in the Sedentary-Individual subgroup demonstrated statistical significance, F(1,94) = 2.422, p < 0.05, adjusted R² = 0.091, with social skills demonstrating the only significant relationship with child enjoyment in participation. The post hoc ANOVAs for the social skills groups in the ERSSQ resulted in a significant effect, F(3,96) = 5.165, p < 0.01, partial η² = 0.139. Tukey’s post hoc analyses demonstrated significantly lower scores for individuals in the 2 SD below average social skill group compared to the 1 SD above average (Mean (M) = −0.672, Standard Error (SE) = 0.231, p < 0.05), and 2 SD above average groups (M = −1.024, SE = 0.272, p < 0.05). We found no other significant differences between the social skill groups.

The multiple linear regression of the Sedentary-Group subgroup demonstrated significant results, F(1,94 ) = 3.242, p < 0.01, adjusted R² = 0.137, with social skills demonstrating the only significant relationship with child enjoyment in participation. The post hoc ANOVAs for the social skills groupings in the ERSSQ demonstrated the significant effect of social skills on child enjoyment in the Sedentary-Group subgroup, F(3,96) = 8.410, p < 0.001, partial η² = 0.208. Tukey’s post hoc analyses for the between group comparisons demonstrated multiple significant comparisons: the 2 SD below average group were significantly lower than the 1 SD above average group (M = −0.859, SE = 0.265, p < 0.05) and the 2 SD above average group (M = −1.542, SE = 0.312, p <0.001), and the 1 SD below average group was significantly lower than the 2 SD above average group (M = −0.873, SE = 0.281, p < 0.05).

The multiple linear regression of the Active-Individual subgroup did not demonstrate significant effects, F(1,94) = 1.816, p = 0.093, adjusted R² = 0.055. However, both parent gender (characterized by female-identifying parents) and social skills (e.g., higher social skills) were found to be significantly associated with the child’s enjoyment of these activities. One-way ANOVAs were conducted as post hoc analyses to assess differences between social skills groups and parent gender. Analysis of between-group comparisons did not demonstrate significant differences between any of the social skills groups despite the significant relationship between social skills and participation, F(3,96) = 1.428, p = 0.240, partial η² = 0.041. The ANOVAs also demonstrated that parental gender did have significant between-group effects, F(3,96) = 4.043, p < 0.05, partial η² = 0.038. Tukey’s post hoc analyses demonstrated significant differences, with female-identifying parents scoring significantly higher than male-identifying parents (M = 0.599, SE = 0.298, p <.05).

Finally, the multiple linear regression for the children’s enjoyment of the Active-Group subgroup demonstrated significance, F(1,94) = 3.301, p < 0.01, adjusted R² = 0.140, with higher social skills demonstrating the only significant relationship with enjoyment in these activities. One-way ANOVAs were run to assess differences of social skills for child enjoyment in the Active-Group subgroup. The results demonstrated significant differences between social skill groups, F(3,96) = 6.626, p < 0.001, partial η² = 0.172. Tukey’s post hoc analyses were run to explore group comparisons. The findings demonstrated that the 2 SD below average group were significantly lower than the 1 SD above average group (M = −0.664, SE = 0.222, p < 0.05) and the 2 SD above average group (M = −1.119, SE = 0.262, p < 0.001), and that the 1 SD below average group was significantly lower than the 2 SD above average group (M = −0.692, SE = 0.236, p < 0.05).

3.3. Parental Satisfaction in Participation

Multiple linear regressions were run for each of the subgroups (Sedentary-Individual, Sedentary-Group, Active-Individual, and Active-Group) based on the parental satisfaction responses in the AQ and CPQ. Full details for the regression models in each subgroup can be found in

Table 4. Multiple regression for Parental Satisfaction in Child Participation.

	Sedentary Individual	Sedentary Group	Active Individual	Active Group
Intercept
B(SE)	2.486 (0.725) ***	10.584 (0.799) *	30.881 (0.1021) ***	10.359 (0.598) *
ΔR2	0.155	0.151	0.033	0.175
DCDQ
B(SE)	0.595 (0.355)	−0.045 (0.391)	0.673 (0.500)	−0.001 (0.239)
p value	0.097	0.908	0.182	0.996
ERSSQ
B(SE)	0.361 (0.100)	0.474 (0.110)	0.213 (0.141)	0.383 (0.082)
p value	<0.001 ***	<0.001 ***	0.133	<0.001 ***
Parent Age
B(SE)	0.001 (0.097)	0.104 (0.107)	−0.042 (0.136)	−0.006 (0.080)
p value	0.991	0.331	0.758	0.941
Parent Gender
B(SE)	−0.394 (0.226)	−0.169 (0.249)	−0.624 (0.319)	−0.087 (0.187)
p value	0.085	0.499	0.053	0.641
Child Age
B(SE)	0.015 (0.022)	−0.036 (0.025)	−0.020 (0.032)	−0.011 (0.019)
p value	0.519	0.148	0.521	0.558
Child Gender
B(SE)	0.095 (0.170)	0.146 (0.187)	−0.140 (0.239)	0.169 (0.140)
p value	0.577	0.437	0.559	0.231
Birth Order
B(SE)	0.168 (0.091)	0.090 (0.391)	0.009 (0.128)	0.187 (0.075)
p value	0.068	0.370	0.942	0.014 *

Note: DCDQ = Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire, ERSSQ = Emotional Regulation and Social Skills Questionnaire, Model = Enter; B = unstandardized regression coefficient; SE = standard error of the coefficient; R² = coefficient of determination. * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001.

. One-way ANOVAs were run as follow-up tests to assess the within-group differences in parental satisfaction with their children’s participation.

The multiple linear regression for parental satisfaction in the Sedentary-Individual subgroup demonstrated significance, F(1,94) = 3.592, p < 0.01, adjusted R² = 0.155, with social skills (e.g., higher social skills) significantly related to parental satisfaction with their child’s participation. One-way ANOVAs were run to assess the within-group differences. A significant interaction effect was found, F(3,96) = 4.405, p < 0.01, partial η² = 0.121. Tukey’s post hoc analysis revealed significant between-group comparisons, with the 2 SD below average social skills scoring significantly lower than the 1 SD above average group (M = −0.837, SE = 0.274, p < 0.05), and the 2 SD above average group (M = −1.052, SE = 0.323, p < 0.05). No other significant comparisons were found.

The multiple linear regression of the Sedentary-Group subgroup demonstrated significance, F(1,94) = 3.513, p < 0.01, adjusted R² = 0.151, with higher social skills as the only significant factor. The effects of social skills on parental satisfaction with their child’s participation in the activities in this subgroup were assessed through one-way ANOVA. Significant interaction effects were found, F(3,96) = 5.915, p < 0.001, partial η² = 0.156. Tukey’s post hoc analyses demonstrated significant comparisons: the 2 SD below average social skills group scored significantly lower on parental satisfaction than the 1 SD above average group (M = −0.930, SE = 0.295, p < 0.05) and the 2 SD above average group (M = −1.361, SE = 0.348, p < 0.001).

The multiple linear regression of the Active-Individual subgroup did not demonstrate significance, F(1,94) = 1.477, p = 0.185, adjusted R² = 0.033, with no independent variables demonstrating significant predictability toward parental satisfaction.

Finally, a multiple linear regression of the Active-Group subgroup demonstrated significance, F(1,94) = 4.006, p < 0.001, adjusted R² = 0.175, with birth order (characterized by younger children), and higher social skills as significantly related to a parent’s satisfaction with their child’s participation. One-way ANOVAs were run for birth order and social skills. The ANOVA for birth order did not demonstrate significant interaction effects, F(4,95) = 0.636, p = 0.638, partial η² = 0.026. The results for social skills revealed significant interaction effects, F(3,96) = 5.915, p < 0.001, partial η² = 0.156. Tukey’s post hoc analyses demonstrated significant comparisons, with the 2 SD below average social skills group scoring significantly lower than the 1 SD above average group (M = −0.930, SE = 0.295, p < 0.05) and the 2 SD above average group (M = −1.361, SE = 0.348, p < 0.001). No other significant comparisons were found.

4. Discussion

The current research examined parental reports (n = 100) of participatory characteristics (i.e., child enjoyment and parental satisfaction) among autistic children aged 4- to 15-years in in different activity structures, including Sedentary-Individual, Sedentary-Group, Active-Individual, and Active-Group activity configurations. The relationships of parent-reported social skills, motor skills, and other potentially influential factors (i.e., parent and child age and gender, and childbirth order; [25,27,37,38,39,40]) were examined. Much of the research related to participation among autistic children has focused primarily on patterns of participation, with only a small portion attending to the different determinants that underlie participation [15,36]. Taken together, the results of the current research highlight important considerations for the factors that contribute to participation in different types of activities among autistic children.

Unsurprisingly, social skills were found to predict both a child’s enjoyment of and parental satisfaction with most activity configurations, with the exception of the Active-Individual subgroup. The findings suggest that when activities have a social component, this component may augment the influence that social skills have on enjoyment, particularly in activities that include interactive and physically engaging tasks [20]. A sense of belonging has been highlighted as important to quality participation, which could be influenced by the social skills demonstrated by autistic children [36]. To optimize a child’s enjoyment, autistic children with below average social skills may require more participatory supports than peers that have higher levels of social competence, or those who are neurotypical [32]. This consideration is critical for intervention programming; it is also likely to influence parent satisfaction. Programs should account for the unique social requisites for participation, which may promote increased participation for autistic children, specifically in activities that include a social component [32,33,35,36]. Additionally, it has been suggested that improving social skills may benefit from activities that pair children with similar abilities and interests [36].

While the unique structure of the Active-Individual activity configuration did not reveal significant regression results for either parental satisfaction or child enjoyment, social skills were found to be significantly related to child enjoyment. Interestingly, despite the significance of social skills to child enjoyment, no between-group differences were found, which may indicate that social skills may not be as crucial toward enjoyment in solitary-active activities compared to group contexts. An absence of significance in parental satisfaction for the Active-Individual activity structure may be due to the nature of these activities being more self-directed and less dependent on social interaction.

The average scores for child enjoyment and parental satisfaction demonstrated the highest values in the Sedentary-Individual configuration. This is unsurprising considering the autistic child’s general preference found in previous research for activities that involved screen time (e.g., video games, computer games, television) and other sedentary activities that could be done individually (e.g., crafts, reading, music) [11,15,24,25,26,31]. Similarly, the lowest average scores were reported for the Active-Group configuration for both child enjoyment and parental satisfaction. This is also unsurprising considering the social and motor demands required to participate in these activities. The confluence of these two skillsets and the potential limitations experienced by autistic children may limit the level of engagement and enjoyment derived from participating in these activities [15,21,24,25,35,36].

Research has suggested that autistic children may demonstrate limitations related to motor competence [5,7,8]. In the present study, motor competence was assessed through parental report of the DCDQ. Almost all of the children (92/100) were reported by parents to demonstrate a likelihood of DCD. This may have influenced the predictive nature of motor skills, as almost all of the children were reported to have low motor abilities. While motor skills are not currently included in the diagnostic criteria for ASD, the motor differences among autistic children have been found to influence participation in various environments and activities [8,45].

The present data suggest differences in child enjoyment between sedentary and active group activities compared to individual activities. Autistic children may have more success in developing motor skills in group settings where social interaction and encouragement can facilitate motivation, particularly among other autistic children who demonstrate similar social skills [5,10]. This is unsurprising, as recent research among autistic children’s self-reported preferences indicated a general lack of enjoyment of activities that emphasized social interaction [25]. Additionally, the relationship between motor and social skills appears to be compounding, where the current skills of autistic children (either motor or social) may influence the types of activities in which they participate, which in turn limits the opportunities for those skills to be enhanced through participation [20,45,46].

The level of involvement in various activity configurations may manifest differently for autistic children, and is often impacted by the physical (e.g., motor competence, task demands) and social (e.g., communication, social interaction, reciprocity) demands of the activity [26,33]. Children who scored lower on social skills (1–2 SD below average on the ERSSQ) were reported to experience lower levels of enjoyment in both sedentary and active group configurations, suggesting that these children faced challenges participating in activities with social interaction. This may have an effect on their motor skill development due to limited participation [5,10].

Generally, the alignment between parental satisfaction with and child enjoyment of the different activity configurations may imply that parents perceive motor skill development as more successful when their child is socially engaged and is enjoying the activity themselves. Providing encouragement for parents to better understand the role of social skills to motor skill acquisition could provide an avenue for parents to support their children’s participation in more physical activity. Additionally, parents are able to provide program and/or intervention instructors with valuable insight into the current abilities, strengths, and interests of their children, which can lead to activities that better support the needs of that child [47].

The significant role of social skills in both sedentary and active activities alludes to a possible link between social and motor skill competence. The current data reveal a strong, positive correlation between social and motor skill scores, which is in line with previous research [12,17,19]. It is possible that children with higher social skills may demonstrate stronger confidence and motivation to engage in a wider range of activities, including those in group contexts, which may promote motor skill acquisition through engagement.

Interestingly, birth order was found to be significantly related to parental satisfaction with participation in the Active-Group configuration. While no significant between-group differences were found, parental satisfaction appeared to be higher when their children were younger than their siblings. Previous research has highlighted that when individuals with ASD had a sibling, they were more likely to experience higher levels of skill development (particularly in adaptive skills) compared to those without siblings [38]. Interestingly, these authors additionally found that regardless of these influences, birth order did not significantly influence behaviors. When considering participation in extracurricular activity, researchers have found that males with older siblings were more likely to participate in physical activities, while females with older siblings were less likely to participate in various social activities [37]. The differences in the effect of birth order may be attributed to the potential benefits that may exist for children with ASD having either younger or older siblings. Younger siblings may allow individuals with ASD to have interactions and experience growth through similarly developed abilities, while older siblings may allow for more supportive interactions and role modeling behaviors [37,38].

While not significant, female-identifying parents appeared to have a positive influence on child enjoyment in all of the activity configurations. This may suggest that parental involvement or encouragement may impact their child’s motivation to engage in different types of activities. Notably, maternal participation in physical activities has been found to be significantly associated with higher physical activity among female children, while sedentary behaviors have been found to be equally influenced by both parents [40]. Parents/caregivers and their autistic children are likely to have differing views toward participation (e.g., value, enjoyment, meaningfulness) [32]. Gender roles may influence the way that parents think about the activities in which their children participate. For example, male-identifying parents have been found to emphasize academic activities compared to female-identifying parents [39]. Conditions surrounding the family, such as family values and the level of prioritization placed on participation in different types of activities have been highlighted as a significant contributor toward participation [11,24,31]. As it relates to the current data, it is important to note that female-identifying parents made up 75% of the responses, which may not provide a representative sample of male-identifying parents. This highlights a need to further investigate the potential influences that parent gender plays on the activities in which children, particularly those with ASD, participate.

It is important to acknowledge the limitations of this research. Self-report and proxy reports by parents were collected online, through questionnaire-based assessments, including for motor and social skills. While these questionnaires have been validated for use in research, future research should endeavor to collect direct measures of these skills through performance-based assessments. The variables considered in the present study did not represent a comprehensive list of factors that may influence participation (e.g., socioeconomic status, marital status, geographic region). Future research should seek to include these demographic components to explore a more diverse set of potential associations that may impact participation among autistic children. The present research collected characteristics of participation related to the child’s current trends and skills and included proxy reports for children aged 4–15. As 100 respondents were included in the data, this resulted in a range of 6–30 children in the different age groups. Skills and interests have been shown to change as children age [24,27,29,30], and the wide age range associated with this research may make it difficult to determine if the factors influencing participation are appropriate at all age levels, or if these associations change as the child ages. Future research may benefit from more age-focused examination to determine the specific factors that influence participation throughout different stages of childhood. While differences in enjoyment and parental satisfaction were not generally found to be significant in the present research, future research should focus on different skill development and their relationship to participation over time. Finally, the DCDQ [41] and ERSSQ [42] provide one overall score for motor and social skills, respectively. More nuanced insight may be provided by analysis of different domains of those skills (e.g., social skills—social reciprocity, emotional regulation).

5. Conclusions

Overall, the results of the current research provide insight into participatory characteristics among autistic children. Differences in child enjoyment and parental satisfaction were reported for different activity configurations. Findings support the impact of social skills on participation, and that autistic individuals with lower social skills are likely to experience less enjoyment in activities with a group component. The findings reinforce the importance of intervention at early ages to promote the development of skills that are required for participation in a range of activities.