Planting Sustainability: A Comprehensive Review of Plant Fibres in Needle-Punching Nonwovens

Abstract

Natural fibres have garnered substantial attention because of their eco-friendly attributes and versatility, offering a sustainable alternative to synthetic ones. This review surveys plant fibres, including flax, hemp, jute, banana, and pineapple, emphasizing their diverse properties and applications in nonwoven materials. This research also examines the use of synthetic polymer composites blended with natural fibres to create high-performance nonwoven materials. Furthermore, this review outlines the primary applications of nonwovens manufactured with plant fibres through needle-punching. These applications span geotextiles, automotive interiors, construction materials, and more. The advantages, challenges, and sustainability aspects of incorporating natural fibres in needle-punched nonwovens are discussed. The focus is on mechanical and thermal properties and their adaptability for specific applications. This research provides valuable insights for researchers and industry professionals aiming to leverage the benefits of plant fibres in needle-punched nonwovens across various sectors.

1. Introduction

In recent years, the textile sector has witnessed a notable transformation with a growing emphasis on the use of natural plant fibres in the fabrication of nonwoven materials. This paradigmatic shift reflects a comprehensive re-evaluation of materials within the textile industry, motivated by an array of critical factors, from escalating environmental concerns to the ever-growing demand for advanced material development. Natural fibres, notably those originating from plants, have risen to the forefront as sustainable substitutes for traditional synthetic materials within the textile sector [1,2,3].

This transition is driven by the need to address the environmental footprint of synthetic fibres, which are typically non-biodegradable and pose significant recycling challenges. At the same time, the pursuit of eco-friendly materials has revived interest in repurposing agricultural and food-processing waste, highlighting the economic advantages of utilizing bio-wastes and biomass in innovative textile applications [2,3].

Within this context, it becomes imperative to explore the broad spectrum of plant fibres, including varieties such as hemp, kenaf, banana, pineapple flax, coir, and others. Each of these plant-based fibres presents unique properties suitable for an array of textile applications. The study of plant fibres, the methodologies employed in their extraction and processing, and the vast possibilities they offer in terms of textile development have gained significance as replacement for a varied host of textile technologies, to this end the sheer scale of the production quantities involved can be seen in Figure 1 [1,2,3,4].

Despite the mounting interest and undeniable potential of plant fibres in the textile sector, the scientific community has yet to comprehensively investigate this evolving domain particularly regarding nonwoven technologies. Moreover, the soaring demands for novel materials spanning various textile applications, from insulation to upholstery [3,6], have underscored the economic and environmental advantages of repurposing natural plant fibres for nonwoven textiles.

This article embarks on a multifaceted exploration of the broad field of plant fibre nonwovens in the textile sector. We delve into the diverse array of plant fibres, their versatile applications, and the trends in the textile market that signal a transformative shift in the textile material landscape. From the methodologies involved in extracting plant fibres to their application in nonwoven textile material development, we illuminate the promising prospects offered by plant fibre-based materials.

With a keen focus on research efforts and market dynamics within the textile sector, we aim to unravel the promising path towards sustainable and eco-friendly textile solutions. In the quest for materials that balance performance, environmental responsibility, and economic viability, natural plant fibres emerge as a compelling avenue, offering potential benefits across a spectrum of textile applications.

In conclusion, this article serves as a comprehensive review of plant fibre nonwovens in the textile sector, underlining the timeliness and importance of this field in our ever-evolving landscape. It sheds light on the unexplored realm of plant fibre nonwovens, emphasizing the need for this research to fill the existing gaps in our understanding. In this context, plant fibre nonwovens emerge as a sustainable solution that harmonises performance, environmental responsibility, and economic viability, heralding a new era in textile innovation.

2. Materials and Methods

This review synthesizes information from a range of academic and industry sources, focusing on studies published in peer-reviewed journals, conference proceedings, and technical reports. Literature was selected based on relevance to the topic of plant fibres in needle-punched nonwovens, with an emphasis on sustainability and potential applications. The approach involved a critical analysis of existing studies, identifying gaps in the literature, and suggesting directions for future research.

3. Natural Fibres

Although much research has been performed on plant fibres, there are still gaps in understanding their full potential in nonwoven applications. Moreover, there is a need for more comparative studies on the environmental impacts of different plant fibres, particularly in terms of lifecycle assessment and end-of-life scenarios. This section will delve into the categorization, properties, and applications of natural fibres, highlighting areas where further research could yield significant advancements.

Natural fibres have a rich historical lineage, from the ancient crafting of woollen textiles to the pioneering utilization of plant materials in early papermaking techniques, these fibres have consistently played a vital role in various applications [4]. Natural fibres can be classified into the following three primary categories: vegetable, animal, and mineral. These categories offer insights into their unique attributes, complexities, and modern applications [2,7]. This section delves into these categorizations, providing a generalised understanding of natural fibres’ multifaceted nature and their contemporary scientific and industrial importance. In Figure 2, we can see a schematic representation of the classification of plant fibres regarding their origin.

Mineral-based fibres, primarily composed of naturally occurring minerals such as asbestos, are distinguished by their exceptional tensile strength, heat resistance, and chemical durability. These fibres have historically found application in industries requiring robust materials for purposes like fireproofing, insulation, and textiles. However, their utilization has been overshadowed by well-documented health concerns, notably asbestos-related diseases like asbestosis and mesothelioma. The inhalation of asbestos fibres has led to widespread bans and stringent regulations [2,7,8,9,10].

Consequently, while mineral-based fibres continue to be a subject of scientific inquiry, efforts to develop safer alternatives that retain their mechanical advantages are ongoing, aiming to balance their resilience with health and safety considerations in contemporary applications.

Animal-based fibres, including silk, wool, animal hair, and feathers, are renowned for their aesthetics and unique attributes. Silk, prized for its smooth texture, has a rich history in textiles and fashion. Wool, originating from animals like sheep, offers exceptional insulation and versatility. Animal hair, exemplified by cashmere, mohair, and camel, is favoured for its softness, and is commonly used in high-end apparel. Feathers, sourced from birds, provide lightweight insulation, and are used in products such as bedding and down jackets. These fibres have historical prominence for their luxurious qualities. However, challenges encompass cost, availability, and ethical considerations related to animal welfare [2,7,11].

Plant fibres, which are of increasing economic and environmental importance, are categorised based on their primary and secondary utilities. Primary utility fibres, such as hemp, jute, and kenaf, are derived directly from plants, while secondary utility fibres, like banana and pineapple, are obtained from plant by-products. Structurally speaking there are also six main types of plant fibres, including bast fibres (flax, hemp, jute, kenaf, and ramie), leaf fibres (banana, pineapple, and sisal), seed fibres (coir, cotton, and kapok), straw fibres (corn, rice, and wheat), grass fibres (bagasse and bamboo), and wood fibres (softwood and hardwood), each with a distinctive compositional and mechanical profile shaped by an array of influencing factors. All these topics will be elaborated on in the subsequent chapters as well as a detailed analysis of specific fibres and their accompanying literature [2,4,7,8,9,10].

3.1. Plant Fibres

Plant fibres are obtained through natural growth or human cultivation. Their characteristics and yields exhibit regional variations and are influenced by environmental factors such as sunlight, moisture levels, plant diseases, insect infestations, and population densities [4].

In recent decades, there has been a substantial rise in the demand for plant fibres due to their perceived eco-friendliness, cost-effectiveness when sourced locally, and their combination of low density with sufficient tensile strength and stiffness.

Table 1. Mechanical properties of plant fibres [1,2,8,12,13,14].

Fibre	Density g/cm3	Tensile Strength MPa	Elastic Modulus GPa	Elongation %
Jute	1.3–1.5	320–850	8–78	1.0–2.0
Hemp	1.1–1.6	270–1750	14–90	0.8–4.0
Flax	1.3–1.5	340–2000	14–103	1.0–3.3
Sisal	1.3–1.6	363–700	9–40	2.0–15
Coir	1.2–1.6	95–230	2.8–7.0	15–51
Ramie	1.0–1.5	200–1000	24.5–130	1.0–4.0
Kenaf	1.4–1.5	223–1200	11–60	1.0–4.0
Banana	0.5–1.5	711–789	4.0–33	2.0–4.0
Pineapple	0.7–1.5	150–1627	11–82	1.6–3.0

provides an overview of the mechanical properties of plant fibres.

In contrast to most animal fibres, plant-based fibres offer higher levels of strength and stiffness, and they tend to be more cost-effective. When it comes to sustainability, particularly in terms of biodegradability, plant fibres are easier to recycle than mineral fibres [15].

The specific chemical composition of plant fibres varies, depending on the authors. Nevertheless, overall, plant fibres’ chemical composition consists mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, as well as other components like pectin, holocellulose, and certain water-soluble substances. Plant fibres chemical composition is directly related to the mechanical properties. Cellulose contributes to the fibres’ strength, stiffness, and overall stability. Hemicellulose contributes significantly to the mechanical strength, flexibility, water retention, and overall functionality of plant fibres and cell walls. Lignin imparts rigidity to plants, while pectin is responsible for the flexibility in fibrous plants.

Table 2. Chemical composition of plant fibres [1,8,16].

Fibre	Composition, %
	Cellulose	Hemicellulose	Lignin
Jute	41–72	12–22	11–26
Hemp	55–80	12–22	3–13
Flax	43–75	5–21	2–4
Sisal	67–80	10–16	5–17
Coir	32–50	0.2–28	40–47
Ramie	68–91	5–16.7	1–17
Kenaf	30–57	18–24	8–21
Banana	48–65	6–16	5–22
Pineapple	55–82	18–20	5–12

resumes the general chemical composition of plant-based fibres [15].

Considering the economic and sustainable advantages of plant fibres, various researchers have explored the development of nonwoven using bast fibres such as jute, hemp, sisal, and flax. More recently, several studies presented banana and pineapple fibres for nonwoven development [15].

3.1.1. Jute

Jute fibre holds a significant role in various industrial applications ranking just below cotton in terms of economic significance within the natural fibres. Despite being traditionally used for the packaging market (cloth, sacks, and woven bags), nowadays, jute fibres have found application in the production of nonwoven materials that offer exceptional functionality across a wide range of technical uses. Various nonwoven manufacturing methods, including stitch bonding, hot calendaring, needle-punching, hot-air thermal bonding, oven bonding, hydro entanglement, and more, have been effectively employed and evaluated to produce jute-based nonwoven fabrics [17,18].

Typically, jute fibre webs are produced using carding technology. Nevertheless, exceptionally fine, or short jute fibres, or even jute waste, undergo processing through air-laid technology. Nonwovens made from jute fibres are commonly bonded using needle-punching techniques. It should be noted that needle-punching may lead to noticeable fibre breakage, resulting in broken fibre ends on the fabric’s surface. Additionally, alternative bonding methods, such as thermal bonding with binder fibres and chemical bonding, are used [19].

Jute, while being an affordable fibre, presents remarkable strength, minimal tensile elongation, and a low crimp count. These qualities make it the primary nonwoven choice for various applications, including floor coverings, serving as the foundational or intermediary layer in tufted floor coverings, upholstery filling components, and acoustic insulation materials [4,6].

Jute nonwovens have been employed in various sectors, encompassing reinforcement composites, automotive applications, needle-punched products in civil engineering and geotextiles [20].

3.1.2. Flax

Flax is one of the earliest fibre sources, with its fibres being among the first to be spun and woven into textiles. Historical accounts suggest that flax fibres were utilised for various purposes as far back as 5000 BC in regions like Egypt and Georgia [2]. In comparison to other natural fibres, flax presents distinct advantages in its cultivation, namely the possibility of thriving without the need for specific soil conditions or pesticides and has a lower water requirement [17].

In terms of nonwoven production, flax fibre webs can be produced using carding or air-laid technology and can be bonded using different technologies; stitch bonding and needle punching are the main techniques applied.

Flax fibres are characterised by their length and strength, featuring a substantial cellulose content and a high degree of crystallinity. These attributes are highly sought after for reinforcement purposes as they contribute to the production of stronger and stiffer composite materials. Consequently, flax fibres serve as an outstanding alternative to synthetic fibres in disposable nonwovens, enhancing their mechanical properties [20].

The natural wax coating on flax fibres provides oleophilic properties, which allows flax to absorb larger quantities of higher-viscosity oil from seawater when compared to conventionally used polypropylene fibres. Therefore, flax fibre-based nonwovens find application in the automotive textile industry, as well as in the production of filter media and insulation products [19].

3.1.3. Hemp

Hemp is a versatile and sustainable natural fibre which has garnered substantial attention for its application in nonwoven materials. This eco-friendly plant fibre is gaining prominence in nonwovens due to its numerous favourable attributes including strength, durability, protection against UV radiation, and absorbency [21,22]. Its exceptional strength and durability make hemp an ideal choice for nonwoven applications where robust materials are required. It also offers excellent moisture-wicking properties and is naturally resistant to microbial growth, making it suitable for hygiene and healthcare products. Moreover, hemp’s environmental benefits are a driving force behind its adoption in nonwoven materials, as it requires fewer pesticides and water compared to some other crops, contributing to a more sustainable and responsible textile industry [23].

In nonwoven production, hemp fibres can be needle-punched to create materials with a wide range of applications. These applications span geotextiles for soil stabilization, automotive interior components for their durability and thermal insulation properties, and eco-friendly personal care products. The use of hemp in nonwovens aligns with the industry’s growing emphasis on sustainability and environmentally responsible materials, as it offers a green alternative that combines strength, durability, and ecological advantages [24,25].

3.1.4. Pineapple

The pineapple leaf fibre (PALF) is a sustainable textile material extracted from the leaves of the pineapple plant, a by-product of pineapple plant cultivation. Pineapple is one of the most consumed tropical fruits in the world, reaching a production of 28.6 million tons in 2021. The leaves of the pineapple plant are usually left on the ground to rot and serve as fertilizer or are burned after harvest [26]. The use of these leaves as a raw material reduces waste, provides an additional source of income for farmers and produces high quality and unexpensive fibres for textile applications. Furthermore, PALF does not compete with food production [27].

The PALF is increasingly being explored and used in textile applications due to its unique properties and sustainability. The PALF is known for its high tensile strength and durability, is lightweight, and moisture-wicking, showing a unique appearance and texture [28].

Only a limited number of researchers have been actively exploring the advancement of nonwoven fabrics based in PALF. The most of PALF nonwovens reported in literature focus on needle-punching technique and its blends with others synthetic fibres, i.e., polyester. The PALF-based nonwovens are frequently proposed for thermal and acoustic insulation, composite reinforcement, and as absorption materials [29,30,31].

3.1.5. Banana

Banana fibre is a plant-based lignocellulosic fibre that is harvested from the leaves or pseudostems of banana plants that thrive in tropical regions. The use of banana fibre offers a sustainable solution to the substantial problem of yearly agricultural waste generated by the abandonment of trunks and stems post-fruit harvest [32].

Because of their high tensile strength, low density, minimal elongation at break, and elevated tensile modulus, composites containing banana fibres hold significant potential for a wide range of industries, including machinery, automotive, and construction [33].

Additionally, several authors have investigated the potential of using banana fibre for thermal and acoustic insulation, producing results that confirm these properties. Nonwoven products created through needle-punching using banana fibre could find applications in various fields, including acoustic solutions, heat insulation, automotive interiors, and mats [33,34].

Due to the presence of natural pigments, pectin and lignin, which act like UV absorbers, banana fibre offers a superior ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) and weather resistance [35,36]. Additionally, high-moisture content also enhances its capability to naturally preserve food items. Therefore, the use of banana fibre for nonwoven fabric development using needle-punching technology, to prolong the freshness of vegetables and fruits when exposed to prolonged sunlight, has been studied and considered promising [35].

Recently, a few researchers have been exploiting the development of nonwoven fabrics derived from banana fibre. Investigators have explored the properties of needle-punched nonwovens from banana fibre, for noise control in car interiors and thermal insulation applications and the thermomechanical and morphological properties of needle-punched nonwoven banana fibre-reinforced polymer composites [37].

4. Nonwovens Based on Natural Fibres

Nonwovens production is a three-stage process that involves the following: web formation, consolidation, and finishing. Although it may be possible to have these three stages occur continuously, this is not mandatory. Plant-based nonwoven fibres can be manufactured using different technologies as aforementioned. Regarding web formation, several authors refer the obtention of a web through carding and air-laid technologies. In the air-laid process, the web is created through aerodynamic formation; in the wet-laid process, the fibres are dispersed in water and the web is created filtration process concluding with the drying and bonding of the resulting web. For the carding process, the fibres are conveyed into a carding machine which consists in a rotating drum or series of drums covered by card wire (thin strips with teeth) where they are combed into a web. The web-formation process selection takes into consideration fibre characteristics such as fibre length and fineness.

In terms of consolidation processes, several technologies have been studied including needle punching, hydro entanglement, thermal bonding and stitch bonding. Nevertheless, most of the research related to plant-based nonwoven development is focused on the needle-punching process.

Needle-punching is a mechanical bonding process in which specific designed barbed needles are pulled and pushed across the web with the purpose of entangle the fibres. Figure 3 schematically illustrates the needle-punching principle.

The results of the final structure depend on a combination of factors, including the raw material, web characteristics, and machine parameters. Raw material characteristics such as fibre length and fineness, fibre type, cross section, crimp, and mechanical properties may have influence in the final properties of the nonwoven. On the other hand, fibre orientation along the web does also affect the nonwoven properties. Several machine parameters may be adjusted to obtain different nonwoven properties comprising needle-punching density, penetration, entry, and exit speeds [20].

Needle-punched nonwoven fabrics are utilised in a variety of applications, including blankets, shoe linings, papermaker’s felts, coverings, heat and sound insulation, medical fabrics, filters, and geotextiles [38]. This technology allows the production of nonwoven materials with a wide range of properties, depending on the choice of fibres, web formation, and consolidation methods. Adjustments to machine parameters such as needle-punching density, penetration speed, and fibre orientation can significantly influence the final properties of the nonwoven fabric [39].

The following sub-chapters present an overview of the conducted research regarding the development of plant-based nonwovens recurring to needle-punching technology as a mechanical-bonding process.

4.1. Plant-Based Nonwoven Fabrics

Natural nonwoven fabrics represent a remarkable intersection of sustainability, comfort, and versatility in the world of textiles. Plant-based nonwovens can be made from a single type of fibre or blended with other fibres to achieve the desired properties [29,36,40]. Nonwoven fabrics based in a single type of plant fibres are reported for a variety of plant fibres such as jute, flax, hemp, pineapple, and banana.

Within the domain of bast fibre research, the incidence of studies documenting 100% single-fibre nonwovens is scant. The predominant emphasis within this field pertains to articles delineating the utilization of jute in 100% single-fibre plant-based nonwovens. In most studies delineating outcomes within the domain of single-fibre plant-based nonwovens, comparisons are drawn between the acoustic and thermal insulation properties derived from this category of nonwovens and those of conventionally utilised materials for such applications (wool and synthetic fibres). Additionally, comparisons are extended to encompass blends of plant-based fibres and with other natural fibres and blends of plant-based fibres with synthetic fibres.

Paul et al. (2022) explored the acoustic properties of needle-punched nonwovens, emphasizing their effectiveness in sound absorption. Their research compared natural fibres such as jute and flax with various polyester fibres in terms of noise reduction coefficient. Despite the superior performance of hollow conjugated cross-section polyester staple fibres, the study concluded that natural fibres, including flax and jute, offer environmentally friendly alternatives for noise insulation [41]. Thirumurugan et al. (2021) [42] delved into the thermal insulation capabilities of nonwovens, with a particular emphasis on jute-based materials for automotive applications. Additionally, Samanta et al. (2021) provide valuable insights into the advancement of natural fibre nonwovens for thermal insulation. Their study on needle-punched nonwoven fabrics utilizing hemp and banana fibres demonstrates their effectiveness in sound absorption and thermal conductivity, making them environmentally friendly choices for automotive and interior insulation [43]. Finally, Kozłowski et al. (2008) [44] explore the integration of flame-retardant bast fibres and wool into insulation composites, offering advancements in fire safety technology, for insulation purposes using natural fibres.

Works reporting nonwovens fabrics made only with PALF are rare as exhibited in

Table 3. Nonwoven fabrics based in single type of plant fibres.

Fibre	Web Formation	Consolidation	Properties	Application	Ref.
Jute	Carding	Needle-punching	519.1 g/m2; NRC 0.056 635.8 g/m2; NRC 0.06 719.6 g/m2; NRC 0.074	Acoustic insulation	[41]
Jute	Carding	Needle-punching	300 g/m2; TI: 301 m2K/kW 500 g/m2; TI: 523 m2K/kW 1000 g/m2; TI: 1060 m2K/kW 1500 g/m2; TI: 1491 m2K/kW 2000 g/m2; TI: 2164 m2K/kW	Thermal insulation	[43]
Jute	Carding	Needle-punching	230 g/m2; 2.14 cm; AP: 302.7 cm3/cm2/s; TC: 0.190 W/mK	Thermal insulation	[42]
Flax	Carding	Needle-punching	561.6 g/m2; NRC 0.06 541.8 g/m2; NRC 0.058 200.5 g/m2; NRC 0.046	Acoustic insulation	[41]
Flax FR	-	Needle-punching	500 g/m2; 5.0 mm; 0.23 m2K/W; α: 0.45	Thermal and acoustic insulation	[44]
Hemp	Carding	Needle-punching	6.14 mm; 525 g/m2; 0.049 W/mK	Thermal insulation	[45]
Pineapple	Carding	Needle-punching	3.48 mm, 0.201 g cm3, 21.1 mW/mK−1, NRC 0.55, LAC 65.06%	Thermal and acoustic insulation	[29]
			1.03 mm, 0.194 g cm3 39.3 mW/mK−1, NRC 0.29, LAC 91.50%
Banana	Carding	Needle-punching/Latex coated	-	Vegetables packaging	[35]
Banana	Carding	Needle-punching	-	Composite reinforcement	[46]
Banana	Carding	Needle-punching	466 and 690 g/m2	Nonwoven production	[32]
Banana (Mahalaxmi)	Carding (Parallel laid)	Needle-punching	Dir1: 5.2 mm, 2.44 g/m2, BL 0.28 kgf, EL 41.8%, BS 13.3 kg/cm2, BdL 4.83 cm Dir2: 5.18 mm, 2.46 g/m2, BL 1.04 kgf, EL 20.5%, BS 15.7 kg/cm2, BdL 5.26 cm	-	[47]
Banana (Shrimanti)			Dir1: 5.53 mm, 2.73 g/m2, BL 4.6 kgf, EL 22.2%, BS 16.6 kg/cm2, BdL 5.99 cm Dir2: 5.9 mm, 3 g/m2, BL 5.01 kgf, EL 9.9%, BS 22.4 kg/cm2, BdL 6.54 cm
Banana (Graint Naine)			Dir1: 5.4 mm, 2.81 g/m2, BL 1.08 kgf, EL 34.5%, BS 13.3 kg/cm2, BdL 4.83 cm Dir2: 5.6 mm, 3.52 g/m2, BL 2.06 kgf, EL 18.4%, BS 15.7 kg/cm2, BdL 5.26 cm
Banana	Carding	Needle-punching	6.9 mm, 513 kg/m2, AP 34.21 cm3/cm2/s, Porosity 94.61%, BS 0.89 kg/cm2, TC 47 mW/mK, NRC 0.418	Thermal and Acoustic properties	[40]
			5.4 mm, 513 kg/m2, AP 56.32 cm3/cm2/s, Porosity 94.48%, BS 0.68 kg/cm2, TC 43 mW/mK, NRC 0.217
Banana	Carding	Needle-punching	5.72 mm, 588 kg/m2, AP 60 cm3/cm2/s, PS 28 μm, 1 BS 15.2 kg/cm2, 1 PR 0.292 kN, 1 TS Dir1 93 N, Dir2 8 N	Comparative study	[36]

¹ Estimated from graphs. Dir1—Direction 1, Dir2—Direction 2, NRC—Noise Reduction Coefficient, LAC—Liquid Absorption Capacity, TS—Tensile strength, EL—Elongation, YM—Young Modulus, BL—Breaking load, BS—Bursting/Breaking strength, BdL—Bending Length, PS—Pore Size, TI—Thermal Insulation, PR—Puncture Resistance, α—Sound absorption coefficient, AP—Air permeability, TC—Thermal conductivity.

. This can be explained by the lack of technologies for the extraction and treatment of pineapple fibres and, therefore, the lack of a supply chain. Thilagavathi et al. (2020) carried out a study for the development and characterization of pineapple fibre nonwovens for thermal and sound insulation applications. The developed PALF nonwovens had comparable sound insulation properties when compared with commercial glass wool, highlighting the potential of 100% PALF nonwoven for technical textile applications [29].

More studies have been reported for nonwovens based in 100% banana fibres, for different applications such as thermal and acoustic absorbers, composites reinforcement and vegetables packaging. These studies collectively highlight the versatility and potential of nonwoven materials across various applications, ranging from sound absorption to thermal insulation.

4.2. Blended Nonwoven Fabrics

Different plant fibres have distinct properties and blending them with another type of fibres allows the obtention of a wide range of properties, making it possible to create nonwoven fabrics with specific characteristics customised to various applications [48].

To advance the understanding of the current state of needle-punched nonwoven fabrics, they have been categorised into the following two groups: those made by blending plant fibres with other natural fibres and those created by mixing plant fibres with synthetic fibres. This categorization allows for a more detailed exploration and analysis of the properties, uses, and potential advantages or disadvantages associated with each type of blend, contributing to a better understanding of the field of nonwoven fabric production.

4.2.1. Nonwoven Fabrics Based in Blends of Plant Fibres with Other Natural Fibres

Since natural fibres have different properties according to their nature, mixing plant fibres with other natural fibres in nonwoven fabric production can offer several advantages. Plant fibres like jute or banana are often coarser and more robust than some other natural fibres, such as cotton [48]. Mixing them with softer fibres can improve the overall strength and durability of the nonwoven fabric. Many plant fibres are known for their excellent breathability and moisture-wicking properties, like pineapple leaf fibres [28]. Combining them with other natural fibres can enhance these characteristics in the resulting nonwoven fabric, making it comfortable for wearables and textiles.

Plant fibres are often more cost-effective and readily available than some other natural fibres. Mixing them can help reduce production costs while still maintaining the desired properties in the fabric. Since plant fibres are biodegradable and typically come from renewable sources, mixing them with other natural fibres can create nonwoven fabrics that are more environmentally friendly and sustainable, aligning with the growing demand for eco-conscious products.

The blending of diverse plant-based fibres offers numerous benefits, particularly in the realm of nonwoven textiles. By combining the inherent strengths of various fibre types, manufacturers can enhance the overall performance, sustainability, and versatility of the resulting materials.

John et al. (2015) developed nonwovens based on agave fibres with wool waste, pineapple leaf fibres, and polypropylene fibres by needle-punching technique. Composites were then produced using a polypropylene matrix by the process of compression moulding. This study showed that natural fibres originated from plant and animal wastes are an excellent alternative for use in composites [31].

Ariharasudhan et al. (2022) reported the development of nonwoven fabrics based on a blend of banana and cotton. The produced materials presented a sustainable and natural based strategy for lead and zinc adsorption [49]. Boominathan et al. (2022) produced needle-punched nonwoven fabrics from Sansevieria stuckyi, banana, hemp, and its blends. Twelve different nonwoven fabrics were developed using blended and non-blended fibre combinations. The main conclusion of the authors was that blended fibre-based nonwoven presented better thermal and acoustic properties the nonwovens based on mono fibres [40].

The combination of banana with jute for the development of nonwoven fabrics was explored by Sakthivel and Murugan (2020). Different ratios of each natural fibre were tested and the mechanical properties and air permeability of the developed nonwoven materials were measured [36].

Table 4. Nonwoven fabrics based in blends of plant fibres with others natural fibres.

Fibre Blend	Web Formation	Consolidation	Properties	Application	Ref.
50% Flax FR/50% Wool	-	Needle-punching	520 g/m2; 5.5 mm; 0.22 m2K/W; α: 0.45; AP: 1225 dm3/cm2/s	Thermal and acoustic insulation	[44]
90% Agave/10% PALF	Carding	Needle-punching	300 g/m2, 1.2 mm	Preparation of PP composites	[31]
40% Coffee Husk/40% Banana/20% cotton	Carding	Needle-punching	5.2 mm, 520 g/m2, Porosity 76.3%, AP 1 78 cm3/cm2/s, TC 1 0.26 W/mK, α 1 0.60–0.65 (700–6300 Hz)	Acoustic and thermal insulation	[50]
75% Banana/25% cotton	Carding (parallel layers)	Needle-punching	7.8 mm, 400 g/m2 T 0.98 g/tex, EL 35.1%, AP 107.2 cm3/cm2/s, BeL Dir1 4.2 cm, Dir2 5.1 cm, AR 66 mg (weight loss), PS 30 microns	Lead and zinc adsorption	[49]
Sansevieria stuckyi:Banana:Hemp (1:1:1)	Carding	Needle-punching	5.1–6.8 mm, 378–495 g/m2, AP 24.73–59.43 cm3/cm2/s, Porosity 94.23–94.84%, BS 1.21–1.56 kg/cm2, TC 29–32 mW/mK, NRC 0.487–0.264	Thermal and Acoustic Properties	[40]
Sansevieria stuckyi:Banana:Hemp (1:1:2)			4.8–5.7 mm, 345–432 g/m2, AP 25.34–56.43 cm3/cm2/s, Porosity 95.4–95.5%, BS 0.97–1.13 kg/cm2, TC 23–28 mW/mK, NRC 0.539–0.269
Sansevieria stuckyi:Banana:Hemp (1:2:3)			4.2–5.3 mm, 314–402 g/m2, AP 22.79–49.22 cm3/cm2/s, Porosity 96.61–98.03%, BS 0.78–0.64 kg/cm2, TC 25–21 mW/mK, NRC 0.577–0.276
80% Banana/20% Jute	Carding	Needle-punching	5.25 mm, 583 g/m2, AP 65 cm3/cm2/s, PS 34 μm, 1 BS 7.5 kg/cm2, 1 PR 0.291 kN, 1 TS Dir1 90 N, Dir2 9 N	Comparative study	[36]
60% Banana/40% Jute			5.21 mm, 582 g/m2, AP 98 cm3/cm2/s, PS 38 μm, 1 BS 4.9 kg/cm2, 1 PR 0.287 kN, +TS Dir1 90 N, Dir2 8 N
40% Banana/60% Jute			5.05 mm, 578 g/m2, AP 122 cm3/cm2/s, PS 40 μm, 1 BS 4.0 kg/cm2, 1 PR 0.274 kN, 1 TS Dir1 86 N, Dir2 7 N

¹ Estimated from graphs. AP—Air permeability, TC—Thermal conductivity, α—Sound absorption coefficient, AR—Abrasion resistance, PS—Pore size, T—Tenacity.

outlines various studies focusing on the incorporation of blends of plant fibres with other natural fibres in nonwoven fabrics as the primary research subject.

4.2.2. Nonwoven Fabrics Based in Blends of Plant Fibres with Synthetic Fibres

The addition of plant fibres can enhance the biodegradability of nonwoven fabrics based in synthetic ones, reducing their environmental impact, and catering to the demand for sustainable textiles. Examples of blends with natural fibres and synthetic fibres, as well as their properties are tabulated in Table 5.

Parikh et al. (2006) demonstrated that nonwoven materials made from natural fibres, specifically designed for floor coverings, possess sound-absorbing characteristics ideal for integration as noise-reduction elements in automobiles. Subsequently, in this study, the evaluation of natural fibre-based nonwoven floor coverings revealed substantial noise reduction capabilities [51]. Moreover, Muthukumar et al. (2018) explored flax/low-melt PET needle-punched nonwovens and found that thermal insulation declined with higher low-melt PET percentages and needle penetration depths. Despite this, all variations displayed enhanced thermal insulation and sound absorption, indicating potential as substitutes for glass fibrous mats, thus offering notable environmental benefits due to high natural fibre content [52]. In addition, Belakova et al. (2018) conducted a study investigating hemp/PLA nonwoven material, which demonstrated comparable sound absorption coefficients to materials such as cut pile carpets used in building construction. Furthermore, the use of fibres from renewable resources validates its manufacturing method and acoustic properties, thereby bolstering its applicability [53]. The combination of PALF with PET and PE was also explored by Suphamitmongkol et al. (2023). The developed materials showed potential for sound insulation applications [54]. Shivankar and Mukhopadhyay (2019) used three different varieties of banana fibres, Mahalaxmi, Shrimanti, and Graint Naine, for the development of needle-punched nonwoven fabric. Blends of banana fibres with PP were also tested. The different nonwovens with banana fibres presented distinct properties, especially regarding the mechanical ones [47].

Table 5. Nonwoven fabrics based on blends of plant fibres with polymeric fibres.

Fibre Blend	Web Formation	Consolidation	Properties	Application	Ref.
35% Jute/35% PET/30% PP	Carding	Needle-punching	1008 g/m2; 10 mm; α 0.10 (700 Hz)–0.71 (3200 Hz)	Acoustic insulation	[51]
33.3% Jute/33.3% PET/33.3% PP	Carding	Needle-punching	200 g/m2; 1,82 cm; AP: 254.1 cm3/cm2/s; TC: 0.182 W/mK	Thermal insulation	[42]
90% Flax/10% PET	Carding	Needle-punching	609 g/m2; 1.62 mm; α 0.43 (6300 Hz)	Acoustic insulation	[52]
80% Flax/20% PET			481 g/m2; 1.22 mm; α 0.54 (6300 Hz)
70% Flax/30% PET			421 g/m2; 1.04 mm; α 0.51(6300 Hz)
30% Hemp/70% PLA	Carding	Needle-punching	300 g/m2; AP: 25000 Pa s/m2	Acoustic insulation	[55]
40% Hemp/60% PLA	Air-laid	Needle-punching	1367 g/m2; 12 mm; NRC: 0.25; α 0.38 (2000 Hz) 1662 g/m2; 12 mm; NRC: 0.21; α 0.38 (2000 Hz)	Acoustic insulation	[53]
90% PALF/10% PET	Carding	Needle-punching/ Calendaring	0.83 mm, 0.241 g cm3, 29.4 mW/mK−1, NRC 0.35, LAC 88.02%	Thermal and acoustic insulation	[29]
			0.83 mm, 0.241 g cm3 19.7 mW/mK−1, NRC 0.32, LAC 84.90%
75% PALF/25% PET	-	Thermal bonding	0.514 g cm3, α 0.0638 (500 Hz)–0.4589 (5000 Hz)	Absorber material	[30]
		Thermal bonding + Double wave	0.674 g cm3, α 0.0525 (100 Hz)–0.7086 (5000 Hz)
		Thermal bonding + Tricot Knitted	0.554 g cm3, α 0.0669 (500 Hz)–0.4816 (5000 Hz)
50% PALF/50% PET	Carding	Needle-punching	2.45 mm, 20.51 g/m2, BL 12.2, EB 31.1 cm, AP 212.54 cm3/m/min	Technical textiles	[56]
		Needle-punching/ Thermal bonding	5.16 mm, 70.21 g/m2, BL 61.3, EB 22.3 cm, 3.59 cm3/m/min
30% PALF/60% recycled PET/10% PE	-	-	46 mm, 53 kg/m3, NRC 0.60, TC 33.3 mW/mk	Sound absorption	[54]
50% Banana/50% PP	Carding	Needle-punching	6.43 mm, 975.6 g/m2, FR 303.53 g cm, Lengthwise: TS 200.03 kgf, EL 72.9%, Widthwise: TS 10.61 kgf, EL 67.9%. 17.8 mW/mK−1, AP 70.367 cm3/cm2/min, α 7–13%	Car Interiors for Noise Control	[29]
60% Banana (Mahalaxmi)/40% PP	Carding (cross laid)	Needle-punching	Dir1: 5.54 mm, 3.36 g/m2, BL 16.31%, EL 90.8%, BS 11.8 kg/cm2, BdL 7.05 cm Dir2: 5.21 mm, 2.46 g/m2, BL 13.49%, EL 107.8%, BS 12.9 kg/cm2, BdL 6.63 cm AP 151.3 cm3/cm2/s	-	[47]
60% Banana (Shrimanti)/40% PP			Dir1: 5.29 mm, 3.57 g/m2, BL 19.72%, EL 87.4%, BS 14.5 kg/cm2, BdL 7.8 cm Dir2: 5.44 mm, 3.58 g/m2, BL 14.98%, EL 102.9%, BS 17.3 kg/cm2, BdL 7.29 cm AP 167.5 cm3/cm2/s
60% Banana (Graint Naine)/40% PP			Dir1: 5.3 mm, 3.99 g/m2, BL 18.21%, EL 88.2%, BS 13.3 kg/cm2, BdL 7.61 cm Dir2: 5.23 mm, 2.72 g/m2, BL 13.19%, EL 115.7%, BS 14.7 kg/cm2, BdL 7.01 cm AP 156.0 cm3/cm2/s		[47]
Banana/PET/PP	Carding	Needle-punching	7.35 mm, TS Dir1 0.32 MPa Dir2 0.17 MPa, BS 14.54 kg/cm2, FR 302 g-cm, EL Dir1 46%, Dir2 24%, TC 17.6 mW/mK, AP 86.64 cm3/cm2/s, α 0.4–15% (80–3880 Hz)	Acoustic properties	[57]

PET—Low melting point polyester, PE—Polyethylene, PALF—Pineapple leaf fibre, NRC—Noise Reduction Coefficient, LAC—Liquid Absorption Capacity, α—Sound absorption coefficient, FR—Flexural rigidity, BL—Breaking load, EL—Elongation, AP—Air Permeability, BS—Bursting strength, BdL—Bending Length.

Table 5. Nonwoven fabrics based on blends of plant fibres with polymeric fibres.

Fibre Blend	Web Formation	Consolidation	Properties	Application	Ref.
35% Jute/35% PET/30% PP	Carding	Needle-punching	1008 g/m2; 10 mm; α 0.10 (700 Hz)–0.71 (3200 Hz)	Acoustic insulation	[51]
33.3% Jute/33.3% PET/33.3% PP	Carding	Needle-punching	200 g/m2; 1,82 cm; AP: 254.1 cm3/cm2/s; TC: 0.182 W/mK	Thermal insulation	[42]
90% Flax/10% PET	Carding	Needle-punching	609 g/m2; 1.62 mm; α 0.43 (6300 Hz)	Acoustic insulation	[52]
80% Flax/20% PET			481 g/m2; 1.22 mm; α 0.54 (6300 Hz)
70% Flax/30% PET			421 g/m2; 1.04 mm; α 0.51(6300 Hz)
30% Hemp/70% PLA	Carding	Needle-punching	300 g/m2; AP: 25000 Pa s/m2	Acoustic insulation	[55]
40% Hemp/60% PLA	Air-laid	Needle-punching	1367 g/m2; 12 mm; NRC: 0.25; α 0.38 (2000 Hz) 1662 g/m2; 12 mm; NRC: 0.21; α 0.38 (2000 Hz)	Acoustic insulation	[53]
90% PALF/10% PET	Carding	Needle-punching/ Calendaring	0.83 mm, 0.241 g cm3, 29.4 mW/mK−1, NRC 0.35, LAC 88.02%	Thermal and acoustic insulation	[29]
			0.83 mm, 0.241 g cm3 19.7 mW/mK−1, NRC 0.32, LAC 84.90%
75% PALF/25% PET	-	Thermal bonding	0.514 g cm3, α 0.0638 (500 Hz)–0.4589 (5000 Hz)	Absorber material	[30]
		Thermal bonding + Double wave	0.674 g cm3, α 0.0525 (100 Hz)–0.7086 (5000 Hz)
		Thermal bonding + Tricot Knitted	0.554 g cm3, α 0.0669 (500 Hz)–0.4816 (5000 Hz)
50% PALF/50% PET	Carding	Needle-punching	2.45 mm, 20.51 g/m2, BL 12.2, EB 31.1 cm, AP 212.54 cm3/m/min	Technical textiles	[56]
		Needle-punching/ Thermal bonding	5.16 mm, 70.21 g/m2, BL 61.3, EB 22.3 cm, 3.59 cm3/m/min
30% PALF/60% recycled PET/10% PE	-	-	46 mm, 53 kg/m3, NRC 0.60, TC 33.3 mW/mk	Sound absorption	[54]
50% Banana/50% PP	Carding	Needle-punching	6.43 mm, 975.6 g/m2, FR 303.53 g cm, Lengthwise: TS 200.03 kgf, EL 72.9%, Widthwise: TS 10.61 kgf, EL 67.9%. 17.8 mW/mK−1, AP 70.367 cm3/cm2/min, α 7–13%	Car Interiors for Noise Control	[29]
60% Banana (Mahalaxmi)/40% PP	Carding (cross laid)	Needle-punching	Dir1: 5.54 mm, 3.36 g/m2, BL 16.31%, EL 90.8%, BS 11.8 kg/cm2, BdL 7.05 cm Dir2: 5.21 mm, 2.46 g/m2, BL 13.49%, EL 107.8%, BS 12.9 kg/cm2, BdL 6.63 cm AP 151.3 cm3/cm2/s	-	[47]
60% Banana (Shrimanti)/40% PP			Dir1: 5.29 mm, 3.57 g/m2, BL 19.72%, EL 87.4%, BS 14.5 kg/cm2, BdL 7.8 cm Dir2: 5.44 mm, 3.58 g/m2, BL 14.98%, EL 102.9%, BS 17.3 kg/cm2, BdL 7.29 cm AP 167.5 cm3/cm2/s
60% Banana (Graint Naine)/40% PP			Dir1: 5.3 mm, 3.99 g/m2, BL 18.21%, EL 88.2%, BS 13.3 kg/cm2, BdL 7.61 cm Dir2: 5.23 mm, 2.72 g/m2, BL 13.19%, EL 115.7%, BS 14.7 kg/cm2, BdL 7.01 cm AP 156.0 cm3/cm2/s		[47]
Banana/PET/PP	Carding	Needle-punching	7.35 mm, TS Dir1 0.32 MPa Dir2 0.17 MPa, BS 14.54 kg/cm2, FR 302 g-cm, EL Dir1 46%, Dir2 24%, TC 17.6 mW/mK, AP 86.64 cm3/cm2/s, α 0.4–15% (80–3880 Hz)	Acoustic properties	[57]

PET—Low melting point polyester, PE—Polyethylene, PALF—Pineapple leaf fibre, NRC—Noise Reduction Coefficient, LAC—Liquid Absorption Capacity, α—Sound absorption coefficient, FR—Flexural rigidity, BL—Breaking load, EL—Elongation, AP—Air Permeability, BS—Bursting strength, BdL—Bending Length.

5. Commercial Solutions and Market Trends

The utilization of plant fibre nonwovens is witnessing a steady rise, primarily driven by the overarching sustainability paradigm. Therefore, some brands are promoting the use of plant fibres in their products. The following table,

Table 6. Commercial non-woven fabrics based in single plant fibres.

Product	Composition	Web Formation	Consolidation	Properties	Application	Manufacturer
HempWool	90% Hemp, 10% Polymer fibre	-	-	Density of insulation: 45 g/cm3; Thermal conductivity: 0.040 W/(m K)	Thermal insulation	Hempitecture [58]
Thermo Hemp Combi Jute	66% Hemp, 22% Jute, 8% PET, 4% Soda	Air-laid	Thermal-bonding	40 mm; α 0.2 (125 Hz)–0.95 (4000 Hz) 160 mm; α 0.85 (125 Hz)–1.0 (4000 Hz) 0.040 W/(m K)	Thermal/acoustic insulation	Hemp Flax [59]
Kobe Eco Hemp Flex	85–87% Hemp, 10–12% Two-component synthetic fibres, 3–5% Soda	-	-	Thickness: 30–240 mm Bulk Density: 35 ± 5 kg/m3 Thermal conductivity: 0.04 W/m K	Thermal/acoustic insulation	Kobe [60]
Kobevlies V	85–87% Hemp, 10–12% Two-component synthetic fibres, 3–5% Soda			Thickness: 30–240 mm Bulk Density: 35 ± 5 kg/m3	Thermal/acoustic insulation	Kobe [61]
Piñatex®	72% PALF 18% PLA, 5% BIO PU, 5% PU	Carding	Needle-punching/Thermal bonding	0.27 g/cm3, 1.6 ± 0.2 mm, 445 g/m2 TeS 145 N Dir 1, 89 N Dir 2 TS 480 N Dir 1, 500 N Dir 2 SR 511 N Dir 1, 355 N Dir 2	Footwear, bags, furnishing and beyond	Ananas Anam [62]
PAFiR	100% PALF	-	-	450 g/m2, Tensile modulus: 16–22 GPa Flexion; modulus: 150–180 MPa	Composites reinforcement	PAFiR-Fibras Técnicas [63]

PLA—Polylactic acid, PU—Polyurethane, TeS—Tear Strength, TS—Tensile Strength, SR—Seam Rupture.

, provides examples of commercial plant-fibre-based nonwovens produced using needle-punching and other production methods/technologies, outlining their respective properties and applications.

Despite the trend towards replacing synthetic fibres with natural alternatives, the high-performance requirements of industries like automotive and construction mean that synthetic fibres remain the necessary choice in these applications. These industries cannot compromise on performance, so they continue to rely more heavily on synthetic counterparts compared to natural fibres. Furthermore, it is challenging to find market solutions with accessible technical information. Companies such as Hempitecture, HempFlax, and Kobe offer some solutions that incorporate hemp fibres in nonwovens for thermal and acoustic insulation in construction applications [58,59,60,61]. Piñatex is a nonwoven material derived from pineapple leaf fibre that is plant-based and vegan-friendly. It may be utilised for various applications in the garment, interiors, accessories, and footwear industries [63].

6. Future Directions

Given the considerable potential of natural plant fibres in needle-punched nonwoven applications, this study identifies several promising areas for future research and development. Addressing these key directions could significantly advance the field.

Current needle-punching technology presents challenges, such as fibre breakage and alignment issues, which affect material strength and uniformity. Exploring innovative approaches—such as refining needle design, optimizing punching density, and integrating hybrid bonding methods (e.g., thermal or hydroentanglement)—could enhance fibre entanglement and reduce damage. Additionally, advancements in automation and digital monitoring of manufacturing processes could improve production efficiency and enable real-time quality control, thereby broadening the applicability of plant-based nonwovens.

Conducting a detailed Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for plant fibre nonwovens could quantify their environmental advantages compared to conventional synthetic materials. This assessment would be essential for evaluating the life cycle impacts across stages—fibre cultivation, processing, use, and end-of-life disposal. Such an LCA could help position plant fibre nonwovens as an eco-friendly alternative in line with UN SDGs, particularly SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) and SDG 13 (Climate Action). By evaluating each phase’s carbon footprint, waste production, and energy use, future studies can establish benchmarks for sustainable practices in fibre processing.

The significant ecological and economic impact of plant fibre-related research underscores the importance of these future directions. Targeted advancements could not only improve the performance and applicability of nonwovens but also set a new standard for sustainability in the textile industry.

7. Conclusions

This review highlights the transition towards incorporating natural plant fibres into nonwoven materials, driven by increasing environmental awareness and the demand for sustainable alternatives to synthetic fibres. Plant fibres have emerged as a compelling, eco-friendly substitute for conventional synthetic materials, primarily due to their biodegradable properties and recycling capabilities.

The article underscores the immediate need for comprehensive research in this evolving domain, particularly within nonwoven technologies. The review meticulously examines various plant fibre types, including, but not limited to, hemp, flax, banana, and pineapple among others, accentuating their distinctive properties suited for a diverse applications range. Ultimately, this article underscores the pivotal role of this research in addressing existing knowledge gaps concerning plant fibre nonwovens. In summary, this article serves as a comprehensive review of plant fibre nonwovens within the textile sector, emphasizing the urgency and importance of this field while illuminating the potential of plant fibres to provide sustainable and environmentally responsible solutions with application in diverse sectors.