Fiber-Based Masks and Respirators: Using Decontamination Methods and Antimicrobial Treatment to Improve Its Reusability during Pandemic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
- What are the available RPDs in the market and their corresponding testing standards?
- What are the possible decontamination methods for the reuse of the RPDs in the literature study?
- What are the cutting-edge antimicrobial treatments on masks in research?
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Testing Standards
3.2. Decontamination Methods
3.3. Antimicrobial Masks
4. Conclusions and Perspectives
- Limited microbial contaminants used in the assay (H1N1, H5N1, MS2 phage, S. aureus and biological indicators);
- Lack of comprehensive testing of the microbial removal, FFRs structural integrity and function change after decontamination procedure;
- Results vary based on the FFR models, materials, and designs, as well as testing protocols.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Method | FFRs Type | Tested Virus | Other Tests | Comments | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI), microwave-generated steam (MGS) and moist heat (MH) | N95 FFRs | H5N1 | Molecular amplification assay, filter performance | Three methods effectively reduce viral laden on the N95 and also do not dramatically affect the filtration performance. Other tests regarding structural integrity are needed for further investigation | [58] |
Autoclave treatment, ethylene oxide (EtO) gassing, ionized hydrogen peroxide (iHP) fogging and vaporized hydrogen peroxide (VHP) | 4 different N95 FFR models | SARS-CoV-2 or vesicular stomatitis virus (as a surrogate) | Physical examination of structural and functional integrity, quantitative fit testing | All methods, which are commonly available in healthcare institutions, yielded effective decontamination performance. The response of structural and functional integrity change varies depending on the FFR models | [59] |
Hydrogen peroxide vapor (HPV) | 3M (St. Paul, MN, USA) 1860 N95 | Biological indicator (Geobacillus stearothermophilus spores) | Off-gassing, odour, physical and performance degradation assessment, fitting test, facial structure check | HPV decontamination protocol is validated to effectively ensure the safe reuse of FFRs in real-world environments | [60] |
Disinfecting wipes | Surgical N95 FFRs | Mucin and S. aureus | Particle penetration | 3–5 log reduction after cleaning FFRs with disinfecting wipes but not considered as effectively decontamination, particle penetration fulfills the standard (<5%) after cleaning despites the one with QACs wipe | [61] |
MGS bags | FFR models pass the predefined quality standards | Bacteriophage MS2 (a surrogate for a pathogenic virus) | Filtration efficiency | 99.9% effective for inactivating MS2 and filtration efficacy remain above 95% after treatment | [62] |
MGS, warm moist heat (WMH), UVGI at 254 nm | 6 commercially available FFR models | H1N1 influenza virus as aerosols or droplets | - | All three methods can reduce >4 log of viable H1N1 virus, and in 93% of the experiment, virus was reduced to undetectable level; no assessment of the integrity structural change of the FFR models | [63] |
H2O2 iHP | N95 FFRs | Influenza A virus (subtype H1N1) | - | iHP could kill influenza A virus at moderate to high levels of inoculum; Residual of H2O2 in the inner surface of N95 should be monitored; The integrity structural change of N95 was not assessed | [64] |
HPV | N95 | 3 aerosolized bacteriophages (proxy for SARS-CoV-2) | - | One HPV cycle can eliminate phage to undetectable level; 5 cycles post decontamination result in no deformation | [65] |
UVGI | 15 N95 FFR models | H1N1 influenza | - | Significant reduction in influenza viability under soiled conditions in post-decontamination | [66] |
UVGI (doses from 120–950 J cm−2 | Four models of N95 FFRs | - | Flow resistance, bursting strengths of the individual respirator coupon layers and the breaking strength of the respirator straps | UVGI has a minor effect on filtration performance but noticeable decrease in the structural integrity; maximum limited disinfection cycles depend on the FFRs models | [67] |
UVGI, (EtO), VHP, microwave oven irradiation (MWI), and bleach | N95 FFRs, surgical N95 respirators, and P100 FFRs | - | Physical appearance, odour, laboratory performance (filter aerosol penetration and filter airflow resistance), dry heat laboratory oven exposures, off-gassing and FFR hydrophobicity | UVGI, EtO and VHP were found to be the most promising decontamination methods; the efficiency of the decontamination methods to inactivate viable microorganisms was not evaluated; infectious pathogen eradication was not assessed | [68] |
Autoclave (160 °C dry heat), 70% isopropyl alcohol, soap and water (20-min soak), bleach, EtO, microwave oven, hydrogen peroxide (vaporized and liquid forms) and UV radiation | N95 and P100 FFRs | - | Filtration performance | Vaporized and liquid hydrogen peroxide and UV radiation appeared to have least effect on particle penetration performance; infectious pathogen eradication was not assessed | [69] |
UVGI, MGS and moist heat incubation (MHI) | 6 N95 FFR models | - | Fitting characteristics, odour, comfort and donning ease | No significant change in fitting, odour, comfort or donning ease with the six FFRs after UVGI, MHI or MGS decontamination | [70] |
UVGI, EtO, hydrogen peroxide gas plasma (HPGP), HPV, MGS, bleach, liquid hydrogen peroxide (LHP) and MHI (pasteurization) | 6 N95 FFR models | - | Physical appearance, odour and laboratory filtration performance | HPGP decontamination methods failed the filter penetration test requested by N95; FFR filtration efficiency of actual bioaerosols, as well as fitting tests after decontamination treatment, was not evaluated; decontamination method regarding its ability to inactivate infectious biological organisms is not tested | [71] |
Coating Method | Antimicrobial Agents | Mode of Action | Tested Microorganisms | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Polyethylene terephthalate transparent masks dip-coated with benzalkonium chloride | The positively charged nitrogen atoms of BAK | Chemically antimicrobial action | MRSA and MRSE | [90] |
Cross-linked to form permanent antimicrobial coating on the surface of the face masks | 2,2′,4′-terpyridine methylammonium chloride (LTMAC) and lignin adenine hexyl ammonium chloride (LAHAC) | Chemically antimicrobial action | Alpha coronavirus: HCoV-229E, beta coronavirus: HCoV-OC43 and K. pneumoniae | [92] |
The deposition of liquid metal copper alloy (LMCu) particles on the fabric by spontaneous galvanic replacement reaction | The reduction of Cu ions into metallic Cu by galvanic replacement | Chemically antimicrobial action | S. aureus, E. coli, C. albicans and prototype human coronavirus (HCoV 229E) | [84] |
The surface of the blown polypropylene filtration media was dip coated with copper@ZIF-8 core-shell nanowires | The synergistic antimicrobial effects between the Cu nucleus and the ZIF-8 shell | Chemically antimicrobial action | S. mutans and E. coli | [94] |
Glycyrrhetinic acid was added to polyvinyl alcohol solution to fabricate the biobased filtration mask by electrospinning | Glycyrrhetinic acid | Chemically antimicrobial action | N.a. | [97] |
BC-BPTCD-RF nanofiber was loaded through the high-pressure airflow onto the surface of the nonwoven fibers | BC-BPTCD-RF nanofibers | Photoactive antiviral (combined photocatalytic and photothermal properties) | E. coli, S. aureus and simulated virus T7 bacteriophage | [99] |
Shellac/copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) were coated on the polypropylene masks by dual-channel spray method | The generation of free radicals by the rapid rising of the mask surface temperature over 70 °C under the sunlight | Light-induced inactivation upon irradiation with near-UV and visible light | E. coli and extracellular vesicles | [101] |
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Song, X.; Liu, P.; Yu, L.; Zille, A. Fiber-Based Masks and Respirators: Using Decontamination Methods and Antimicrobial Treatment to Improve Its Reusability during Pandemic. Textiles 2022, 2, 318-335. https://doi.org/10.3390/textiles2020018
Song X, Liu P, Yu L, Zille A. Fiber-Based Masks and Respirators: Using Decontamination Methods and Antimicrobial Treatment to Improve Its Reusability during Pandemic. Textiles. 2022; 2(2):318-335. https://doi.org/10.3390/textiles2020018
Chicago/Turabian StyleSong, Xinyu, Pengyan Liu, Liangmin Yu, and Andrea Zille. 2022. "Fiber-Based Masks and Respirators: Using Decontamination Methods and Antimicrobial Treatment to Improve Its Reusability during Pandemic" Textiles 2, no. 2: 318-335. https://doi.org/10.3390/textiles2020018
APA StyleSong, X., Liu, P., Yu, L., & Zille, A. (2022). Fiber-Based Masks and Respirators: Using Decontamination Methods and Antimicrobial Treatment to Improve Its Reusability during Pandemic. Textiles, 2(2), 318-335. https://doi.org/10.3390/textiles2020018