Review of Recent Developments and Understanding of Atterberg Limits Determinations
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. LL Determination
2.1. General Approaches and Categorizations
2.2. Fundamental Basis and Mobilized Strengths for LL Approaches
2.3. Comparison of LL Results from PC and FC Approaches
3. PLHR Determination
3.1. Definitive Method—Rolling of Soil Threads
3.2. Proposed Alternative PLHR Methods Based on Onset of Brittleness
3.3. Unsoundness of Strength-Based Approaches for PLHR Determination
3.4. Definition of the ‘Plastic Strength Limit’, PL100
3.5. Strength Range at the PLHR and Non-Uniqueness with PL100
4. PL100 (and PL25) Correlations with Strength
5. Recent Developments Regarding Consistency Limits Determinations and Soil Classification
6. Summary
- The FC LL test method (with su(LL FC) ≈ 1.7 kPa for LLFC(BSI)) has superior repeatability/reproducibility compared to the PC LL approach, for which the deduced LLPC is dependent on specific strength, explaining why ‘soft’ base PC LL devices produce higher LLPC values compared to ‘hard’ base ones and also the LLFC(BSI), as well as the form of the increasing LLPC to LLFC ratio relationship for higher LL water contents. Accordingly, deduced plasticity index values for measured LLPC (i.e., IP(PC)) are often different from those obtained for measured LLFC (i.e., IP(FC)), which can have significant implications; for instance, in the classification of some fine-grained soils, especially those that lie close to boundaries. For extremely high LL water content, substantial divergence can be expected between ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ base LLPC and also between these LLPC and the 80 g/30° and 60 g/60° LLFC. Discrepancies in the LL results obtained for a given fine-grained soil arising from the methodological differences can be adequately resolved via appropriate correlations; e.g., see Equations (2) and (3).
- The hand-rolling PL (i.e., PLHR) determines a genuine observable transition in soil behavior (i.e., the water content at the plastic–brittle transition point), but plate rolling and mechanized rolling devices (PLPRD and PLMRD, respectively) systematically produce underestimates of the PLHR, especially for the PLMRD-derived values. Indentation testing, considering cases with and without crack formation (for the printed perforation mark) indicative of brittle and plastic states, respectively, merits further investigation.
- Since the strength gain factor with reducing water content over the full conventionally defined plastic range varies substantially between fine-grained soils, the strength-based FC and extrusion approaches are entirely unsuitable for PLHR determination, typically producing ±20% variation for PL100 to PLHR water contents. Consequently, PL100 (or those PSL values deduced based on another assumed strength-gain factor magnitude over the conventional plastic range) should not be entertained for fine-grained soil classification purposes or employed in deducing other parameters for preliminary geotechnical design from established correlations based on datasets with PLHR.
- The presented framework given by Equations (4)–(6), utilizing strength-based FC-derived LLFC and PL25 parameters, provides a convenient and reliable means of correlating FC strength variation with water content over the full plastic range, with PL25 favored over PL100, so that the FC-tested soil specimens exist in a plastic state (w > PLHR).
- Finally, the two recently developed plasticity-based fine-grained soil classification systems [19,79] presented do not rely on PLHR results (which are known to have high operator variability of up to 10–15%), but instead require PL determination using a thread-bending test (Moreno-Maroto and Alonso-Azcárate [48,49]), or rely solely on the flow index (and LLFC(BSI)) determined from 80 g/30° FC LL testing [19].
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
FC | fall cone |
LL | liquid limit |
PC | percussion cup |
PL | plastic limit |
PSL | plastic strength limit |
PTF | pedo-transfer function |
USCS | Unified Soil Classification System |
Nomenclature
d | cone penetration depth |
dLL | penetration defining the fall cone liquid limit |
g | gravitational constant |
IC(FC) | fall cone-based logarithmic consistency index parameter |
IF(FC) | the fall cone-derived flow index |
IF(PC) | percussion cup-derived flow index |
IL | the conventional liquidity index |
ILN | the logarithmic liquidity index |
IP | the plasticity index |
IP(FC) | the plasticity index based on the fall cone liquid limit (i.e., LLFC − PLHR) |
IP(PC) | the plasticity index based on the percussion cup liquid limit (i.e., LLPC − PLHR) |
IP100 | the plasticity index based on the PSL water content derived for R = 100 (i.e., LLFC − PL100) |
K | fall cone factor |
LLFC | the fall cone liquid limit |
LLFC(BSI) | the liquid limit determined by 80 g/30° fall cone at 20 mm penetration depth |
LLPC | the percussion cup liquid limit |
LLPC(ASTM) | the percussion cup liquid limit determined according to American Standards (hard base) |
LLPC(BSI) | the percussion cup liquid limit determined according to British Standard (soft base) |
m | cone mass |
n | number of data points used to generate a regression |
N | number of blows to brass cup in Casagrande device |
pe | extrusion pressure |
pe(PL) | extrusion pressure corresponding to the PLHR water content |
PLHR | the plastic limit determined by the hand-rolling method |
PLMRD | water content to produce 3.2 mm dia. by 1–2 cm long soil threads using motorized rolling device |
PLPRD | water content for thread crumbling condition in Bobrowski and Griekspoor’s plate rolling device |
PL10 | the plastic strength limit (for R = 10) |
PL25 | the plastic strength limit (for R = 25) |
PL100 | the plastic strength limit (for R = 100) |
R | undrained strength gain factor with reducing water content relative to fall cone liquid-limit water content |
R2 | coefficient of determination |
su | undrained shear strength |
su(LLcup) | undrained shear strength corresponding to the LLPC water content |
su(LL FC) | undrained shear strength corresponding to the LLFC water content |
su(PL) | undrained shear strength at the PLHR water content |
su(PSL) | undrained shear strength at the plastic strength limit water content |
Tmax | maximum toughness |
w | water content |
Δw | change in water content |
ρsat | saturated bulk density |
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O’Kelly, B.C. Review of Recent Developments and Understanding of Atterberg Limits Determinations. Geotechnics 2021, 1, 59-75. https://doi.org/10.3390/geotechnics1010004
O’Kelly BC. Review of Recent Developments and Understanding of Atterberg Limits Determinations. Geotechnics. 2021; 1(1):59-75. https://doi.org/10.3390/geotechnics1010004
Chicago/Turabian StyleO’Kelly, Brendan C. 2021. "Review of Recent Developments and Understanding of Atterberg Limits Determinations" Geotechnics 1, no. 1: 59-75. https://doi.org/10.3390/geotechnics1010004
APA StyleO’Kelly, B. C. (2021). Review of Recent Developments and Understanding of Atterberg Limits Determinations. Geotechnics, 1(1), 59-75. https://doi.org/10.3390/geotechnics1010004