From School Gardens to Community Oases: Fostering Environmental and Social Resilience in Urban Spaces

Abstract

This case study in the municipality of Acharnes, Greece, examines a local initiative that transforms schoolyards into community gardens, involving teachers, pupils, parents, grandparents, and neighbors. The research explores participants’ perceptions of these transformations, with a focus on interactions with non-human beings such as pollinators. Data were collected using a questionnaire completed by 85 participants, including parents and guardians of pupils and school staff. Data analysis was conducted using statistical software to evaluate the research sample. Initially, descriptive statistics, including frequency distributions, were used to summarize the demographic and baseline variables of the sample. Next, Kendall’s tau correlation was applied to assess statistically significant relationships, such as those between age and proximity to green spaces, as well as gender, education, and green space preferences. The results of the survey reveal the “embrace” of these new urban green areas by both the school and the local community. This study, as part of an effort to address broader challenges in urban contexts, highlights the need for further in-depth exploration and examination of these dynamics to provide valuable insights into the design and management of school gardens. The aim is to enhance community engagement and urban biodiversity, with a central focus on social and environmental resilience.

1. Introduction

In recent decades, the advent of global challenges such as climate change, the COVID-19 pandemic, and economic crises has significantly reshaped the utilization and perception of public urban spaces worldwide [1,2]. This, in turn, has led to a comprehensive reevaluation of public space design and management, fostering innovative strategies for creating safer, more sustainable, and inclusive urban environments [2,3,4,5]. With the global urban population projected to reach 66–70% by 2050 [6,7], it has become increasingly crucial to redefine urban areas as ‘meeting landscapes’ that harmonize human needs with environmental functions [8]. The United Nations has been at the forefront of advocating urban green spaces as a strategic tool for preserving and improving the urban environment. These spaces are increasingly recognized as reservoirs of natural capital and as catalysts for social transformation [9]. Recent studies [10,11,12] have elucidated the multifaceted benefits of urban green spaces, underscoring the critical role of citizen engagement with these settings in promoting overall well-being and advancing urban sustainability. With the ambition of transforming the city into a safe, green, and culturally rich living environment, gardens are envisioned as vehicles for the sustainable governance of energy, resources, material flows, and communities [13]. Open to the public, they could serve as a sustainable urban paradigm, profoundly influencing urban metabolism, supporting a balanced interaction between built, social, and ecological systems [14]. Through their qualities, they contribute to the redefinition of open urban areas, enabling citizens to reclaim public spaces, while acting as a strategic community asset [14], even contributing to local food production—a critical parameter. Equally important is their role in strengthening the social and cultural fabric of the urban environment [15].

This work is part of an initiative to transform schoolyards into community gardens and focuses on participants’ perceptions regarding green spaces and urban gardens. The research explores how these transformations are perceived by those involved, shedding light on their views about the role and impact of such green spaces in urban environments. By sharing portions of school infrastructure, particularly schoolyards, the city is able to forge its own path toward sustainability. After school hours, these spaces are reclaimed by communities, imbuing them with an inclusive and equitable character. This approach shifts from a rationale of containment to one of coexistence, cooperation, and co-creation based on equality, rather than diversity, as Toursoglou-Papalexandridou notes [16]. Therefore, “breaking down the walls” of schoolyards and transforming them into functional public spaces—green public spaces open to the community—can bridge the gap between school infrastructure and the neighborhood. This transformation allows members of the school community to engage qualitatively with the local community, participating in joint decision-making, planning, and implementation processes [17]. By creating a new space for experimentation, the needs of both the local and the school community can be addressed [18]. Schoolyards are among the few remaining open spaces in many urban areas [19] and, by converting them into community gardens, urban land is effectively ‘replicated’, making more green space available to residents. Through active community involvement in these greening efforts, schools have the potential to move toward greater sustainability [20]. According to Bauman [21], a democratic and sustainable school—and, by extension, a democratic and sustainable society—forms the foundation upon which freedom is built. This freedom is defined by the ability to shape one’s own life, understand the importance of the ‘community well-being’, and influence institutions in this direction [20].

In Greece, the issue of urban green spaces is particularly pressing due to a significant lack of such areas in urban settings. This research aims to elucidate the interplay among educational institutions, public spaces, community dynamics, and perceptions of nature in the Greek urban context. It offers insights into how school–community gardens can serve as educational resources and vital community assets, linking nature and people. By doing so, these gardens contribute to more inclusive and ecologically vibrant urban environments, highlighting the role of education in fostering a connection with nature and enhancing the quality of urban life. This research explores the potential of schoolyards to serve as open green spaces functioning as urban gardens, benefiting the local community hosting the schools. This aligns with the concept of creating ‘meeting landscapes’ that harmonize the needs of people and nature while addressing the urgent need for green spaces in Greek urban areas.

Pechtelidis [18] argues that a modern school should be open and in constant interaction with the community, supporting the idea of transforming schoolyards into urban community gardens. This concept aligns with broader global trends in urban planning and community development, offering a localized solution to the challenges faced by urban areas. The study focuses on transforming institutionally closed schools and their courtyards into open, community-oriented entities. By removing institutional and physical barriers, these spaces can potentially become community green spaces fostering reciprocity and shared intention [22,23,24]. This approach not only addresses the lack of green spaces, but also promotes social, environmental, and climate resilience at the local level.

2. Green Public Spaces and Community Gardens in Urban Contexts

In the last decade, residents have initiated the conversion of underutilized urban spaces into community gardens [22,25], fostering both natural and social environments that promote public life and social interaction [26]. These community-driven initiatives, characterized as ‘shared spaces’ by Carr et al. [27], offer numerous benefits. They enhance biodiversity, improve air quality, and contribute to urban cooling [28], while simultaneously facilitating community bonding, intergenerational interactions, and cultural exchange [29]. Moreover, these spaces promote physical and mental well-being [30], contribute to local food security [31], provide educational opportunities [32], and can even yield economic benefits such as increased property values [33].

Urban planners and policymakers have emphasized the importance of accessible green spaces, based on the WHO, which suggests that they should be located within 300–500 m or within a 5 min walk from residential areas [10,11,12,34,35]. This proximity allows citizens visual access to at least three trees in their daily lives, which is crucial for improving urban living conditions. Research indicates that neighborhoods should maintain a minimum of 30% green cover, as this is essential for enhancing urban living conditions [35]. The appeal of urban green spaces transcends gender boundaries [36], with residents actively seeking these areas [6,37,38,39], even if it requires traveling considerable distances [36]. Educational attainment has been found to influence this propensity [40,41].

Furthermore, nature-based solutions have become essential in the context of climate change adaptation and mitigation [42], particularly by enhancing urban green spaces. These solutions improve local environments, reduce ambient temperatures, and enhance air quality and biodiversity. Empirical studies demonstrate that green spaces significantly improve metropolitan quality of life by mitigating the negative impacts of urbanization [5,6,38,43,44,45,46]. They serve as vital ecological regeneration sites, acting as ‘green stepping stones’ and offering diverse ecosystem services, including food production and the promotion of human well-being [47,48]. These areas bolster ecological resilience against climate change, earning recognition as crucial ‘green lungs’ for urban areas.

Urban gardens, as green spaces, significantly contribute to the reduction of the carbon footprint of communities, playing a crucial role in fostering sustainable and resilient urban ecosystems [49]. These green spaces facilitate ongoing engagement between natural environments and social performances, reshaping the urban landscape. As dynamic components of a living ecosystem, they transcend the role of simple backdrops, becoming essential links between social practices and environmental qualities [50,51]. This fosters interdependent relationships [52] and creates spots of reconnection between humans and nature [53], as well as between society and the environment. Urban gardens, by promoting citizen engagement, could play a crucial role in bridging the artificial divide between nature and culture, fostering the interconnectedness and interdependence of all life on Earth. This integration is essential for advancing urban sustainability and enhancing ecological resilience.

Community gardens are emerging as a distinct subset of urban gardens, exemplifying a more participatory and community-based approach to the governance of green spaces. Egerer [54] states that community gardens function as ecosystem service hubs that facilitate socio-ecological connectivity and service flows. They enhance local community interactions by providing a nearby connection to nature [15,55] and offer pathways for the regeneration of vacant spaces within the community [14]. The community reconnects with the natural world [56] while fostering social connections [57]. Their ability to foster a deep synergy between community and nature is vital to address public health problems and combat social isolation by strengthening social ties and promoting collaborative actions among community members [58].

However, despite their multifaceted benefits, community gardens are treated by official institutions as a short-term social policy action rather than a long-term sustainable urban planning strategy [49]. Their sustainability seems to be hampered by the lack of institutional consolidation and legitimacy of urban planning policy tools. This means that they are promoted through the informal sector and are not included in planning documents and reports as a land use category. Consequently, they are not viewed as a permanent aspect of urban planning; rather, they are seen as spaces for ‘temporary or interim use’ which prevents them from being recognized as a ‘valuable use’ of land that should be politically and institutionally protected [54,59]. The ‘informal’ status and often ephemeral nature of community gardens make them ‘fragile’ in the face of future competing uses of urban space [49,60].

The concept of ‘temporary use’ is nowadays coming to the fore as a new and alternative urban concept [26], defined by its short time frame and flexibility. Public discourse centers on evaluating its potential to address the needs of communities and citizens on a long-term basis [61]. Community gardens, which function as public and open green spaces, expand their spatial and temporal dimensions in an attempt to respond to the constant transformation of today’s cities. Examples in Greece include the former Karatasios camp in the municipality of Pavlou Melas, in the regional unit of Thessaloniki, Central Macedonia, Greece, where the PERKA cooperates with local cultural institutions [62], the municipal Vegetable Garden of the municipality of Thermi [49], and the vineyard of the municipality of Thessaloniki [3]. They host participatory and collaborative actions, which are considered to be the key to their success [63,64] and the achievement of ‘open’ and inclusive access.

Institutional recognition of these gardens [58] enhances their spatial and environmental contribution [65] and strengthens their role as integral components of urban green infrastructure [60]. Local governments activate community engagement and transform cities into healthy, sustainable, and vibrant environments by implementing supportive structures for community gardens. Ultimately, this transformation leads to an improved quality of life for both human and non-human life [57]. This is not only due to the aesthetic enhancement of urban spaces, but also to the critical role these areas play in promoting community well-being [66].

In Greece, in particular, the lack of free and open green spaces remains a long-standing problem [49,67,68,69]. Existing green spaces are not only scarce, but those that are free and public are functionally inadequate. Moreover, existing institutional frameworks for their participatory planning, such as the neighborhood committees of Law 1337/1983, the residents’ assemblies of local communities of Law 3852/2010, have been discredited due to years of ‘inactivity’ [62]. In recent years, as public spaces have faced ongoing contestation, city dwellers have actively engaged in efforts to reclaim them. They undertake actions of resistance, protest, and conflict to ‘re-appropriate’ these spaces [62,64]. They have launched the well-known ‘transition and recovery movements’, which open up new avenues for collective activism. These movements [70] encourage citizens to think not in terms of ‘property’, but in terms of social actions [62].

Recognizing that the root causes of the lack of open green spaces are socio-political, it becomes evident that actions involving ‘commons’ and ‘commoning’ contribute not only to the provision of such spaces, but also to addressing the broader issue of the governance of public spaces and the subsequent transformation of socio-political conditions. The ‘commons’ play a crucial role in promoting democratization, emancipation, politicization, and, ultimately, the cultivation of a collective consciousness. These performances have the potential to change public attitudes, fostering the development of a shared vision of urban spaces and their governance [62].

3. Study Area

For this study, a kindergarten was selected within the municipality of Acharnes, a suburban area of Athens, Attica, Greece (Figure 1). In Greece, kindergartens, known as “Νηπιαγωγεία” (Nipiagogeia), are an integral part of the formal education system and serve as the foundational level of education for children aged 4 to 6 years. Attendance is compulsory for two years before children transition to primary school. Greek kindergartens share a similar structure and function with primary schools, operating under the same legal framework and educational guidelines. They belong to the same level of education, highlighting their importance in the educational journey. Furthermore, the involvement of parents in kindergartens is emphasized, often matching or even exceeding that of primary school parents, as reflected in the curriculum. This underscores the critical role kindergartens play in early childhood education, mirroring the structure and significance of primary schools.

The chosen school features a courtyard that is conducive to the establishment of a garden. The school offers approximately 60 m² of cultivable space. This space is particularly significant in the urban areas of Greece, especially within Athens, the capital city of Greece, and its surrounding neighborhoods, like the municipality of Acharnes, where many schools either lack large courtyards or feature concrete surfaces that are unsuitable for cultivation (Figure 2 and Figure 3).

The selection of the school was influenced by several key factors. Foremost was the availability of cultivable land, which provided a vital resource for establishing gardens. The researcher was familiar with the teachers at the selected school prior to conducting the study due to her role as a primary school teacher. Through discussions with them, reflections quickly emerged on how they could utilize their schoolyard. These discussions were subsequently shared with parents during the initial meetings.

The food production in this garden was particularly engaging, as it involved teachers, parents, and pupils, all of whom expressed a strong desire to participate in gardening activities. Specifically, nine teachers from both the morning and full-day sections of the school, along with 76 parents, guardians, and grandparents of the school’s pupils, participated in this study. Their enthusiastic support significantly contributed to the decision-making process. The suitability of the facilities, particularly the condition of the yard and its potential for cultivation, also played a crucial role. Furthermore, while the school’s commitment to the integration of gardening into its educational program and to the promotion of environmental awareness is evident, it is important to note that these gardening activities were not officially included in the school curriculum. However, previous educational programs focused on school gardens have contributed significantly to the environmental awareness of educators. As a result, they were willing to embrace a new initiative for the school garden, even beyond their working hours, reflecting their dedication to fostering a sustainable and engaging learning environment for the pupils and for themselves too. Finally, the context of this specific urban area, where access to green spaces is limited, made the establishment of these gardens particularly meaningful and impactful (Figure 4 and Figure 5).

Participants opted to cultivate edible foods, such as vegetables and fruits, rather than flowers or ornamental plants, as they recognized the necessity of addressing food insecurity. Through the preliminary discussions that took place prior to the establishment of the gardens, it became evident that food production, particularly organic food production, was a concern for them. They expressed a strong interest in providing children with the opportunity to access fresh produce, ensuring that it was readily available to them. It is a fact that, in the country, the recent economic crisis and austerity measures (period 2010–2018), coupled with the current energy crisis, have led to an increase in poverty and food insecurity, exacerbating existing inequalities in the context of access to food [71]. Food prices have increased significantly, leading to noticeable shifts in consumption patterns, with fresh and high-quality food products replaced by cheaper alternatives [71]. Consequently, ensuring access to free food grown in school gardens emerged as one of the primary objectives for establishing these gardens. All the actors were primarily interested in ensuring access to an appropriate nutrition for the children attending the school and the educators. If the food produced was sufficient, it would also be shared with others, including guardians and neighbors.

The methods of organic farming and the principles of subsistence agriculture were adopted, with a particular emphasis placed on self-sufficiency and the exclusion of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers. This approach prioritized the utilization of land in a manner that regenerates its productive capacity while minimizing ecological impacts. To achieve self-sufficiency and mitigate environmental effects, natural soil conditioners were produced through on-site composting. The composting process was a collaborative endeavour that involved pupils, teachers, support staff, parents, extended family members (including grandparents), and neighbors whose children or grandchildren had previously attended the schools.

In addition, the Food Lab—a collective of experts specializing in the establishment of urban farms in Athens, catering to both private and public sectors—played a pivotal role in this initiative at no extra cost. They analyzed the soil in the school yards in order to assess its quality and suitability for cultivation. This analysis involved evaluating various factors such as soil composition, nutrient content, pH levels, and drainage capabilities. By understanding these characteristics, they were able to make informed recommendations regarding the types of crops that could be effectively cultivated, as well as the necessary amendments or treatments to enhance soil fertility. This thorough assessment served as a foundational step to ensure the success of the gardening initiatives and promote sustainable agricultural practices within the school environment. Members of this team provided unpaid support by making visits to the school to emphasize the importance of composting, talking to pupils and teachers and helping them build their own composters. They offered practical guidance on their daily use in the school grounds. In conjunction with this effort, local authority staff and municipal agronomists offered guidance to participants, imparting expertise on effective techniques for the cultivation of vegetables and fruit. They disseminated information regarding optimal growing seasons, which were determined to be November, March, and May. This collaborative approach ensured that the participants were well-equipped with the knowledge necessary for successful agricultural practices.

4. Materials and Methods

The initiative to transform the schoolyard into a community garden for food production started in January 2023. To collect our data, a structured questionnaire was distributed to parents, teachers, school staff, and grandparents (guardians). The school involved in the survey had an enrollment of 60 students at the time of the study. A total of 120 questionnaires were distributed to the parents of these students and to the nine teachers and school staff members. Although all parents were invited to participate, the parents of 56 students responded. Out of the total number of distributed questionnaires, 85 were completed and returned. The questionnaire was written in Greek, as it is the first language of the participants. Even parents from other countries (migrants) who participated in the survey spoke Greek fluently, so translation was not necessary to complete the questionnaires. Both demographic information (such as gender, age, and educational level) and insights into the perception of green spaces within the specific urban context, with a particular focus on the role of urban green spaces and school gardens as vital components of the city, were collected.

The questionnaire (Appendix A) comprised close-ended questions organized into eight sections. These sections included: (a) personal and socio-demographic data of respondents (gender, age, educational level, occupation, place of residence), (b) details regarding green spaces in the area of residence (including type, number, frequency of use, distance from home, means of transport to the space, reason for choosing it, and suggestions for improving green spaces in the area), (c) the social value of green spaces, their impact on public health, and their relationship with nature and “ownership”, (d) knowledge of terms related to urban greenery and proposals for enhancing the human–nature relationship, and (e) perceptions of school gardens as green spaces in the city and their function as habitats for pollinators.

Through the use of the questionnaire, we aim to identify community members’ perceptions and beliefs regarding the “transformation” of the schoolyard and its perceived impact on their lives. We also explore how they interpret the term ‘urban green space’. The standardized format was chosen to facilitate the analysis across different groups, enabling the comprehension of interventions and attitudes. Insights gained from the questionnaire can highlight areas of interest or concern that warrant deeper investigation.

The questionnaire aimed to capture how participants perceived the potential of schoolyards as community gardens during the initiative’s initial stage. Data analysis was conducted using the SPSS software, version 29, for the quantitative data obtained from the questionnaires. In the first step, descriptive statistics (frequency distribution) were applied. The Kendall’s tau correlation was then tested to identify statistically significant correlations. Finally, regression analysis (p < 0.05) was performed to examine relationships among different variables using binary regression.

This study clarifies the findings from the questionnaire analysis which hold substantial importance owing to their divergence from the established literature. These findings offer valuable insights and nuanced perspectives. Our study strategically employs both action research and participant observation methodologies, leveraging their complementary strengths to create a robust framework to achieve the research objectives. Action research was chosen for its collaborative and iterative nature, engaging participants as key researchers to ensure that the solutions developed were practical and directly applicable to the context. Meanwhile, participant observation provided qualitative depth, allowing researchers to immerse themselves in the participants’ environment and gain nuanced insights into their behaviours, experiences, and social interactions. Recordings and photographs of the garden activities offered valuable supplementary data, enriching the research narrative and providing visual insights into the project’s development.

5. Results

Table 1. Data on the socio-demographic profile of the respondents.

Variables		Frequency (n = 85)	Percentage (%)
Gender	Female	54	64
	Male	31	36
	Missing values	0	0
Age level	<20	0	0
	20–29	4	4.70
	30–39	33	38.80
	40–49	30	35.30
	50–59	15	17.60
	60–69	3	3.50
	70–79	0	0
	>80	0	0
	Missing values	0	0
Education	Compulsory education	2	2.40
	High school diploma	25	29.40
	University/college degree	37	43.50
	Master’s/doctoral degree	12	14.10
	Missing values	9	10.60
Occupation	Public/private employees	62	72.90
	Freelance professionals-private enterprises	7	8.20
	Pensioners	2	2.40
	Unemployed	2	2.40
	Pupils	0	0
	Household	2	2.40
	Other	0	0
	Missing values	10	11.80
Place of residence	Acharnes	58	68.20
	Other	9	12
	Missing values	18	19.80

presents frequency and percentages obtained from the socio-demographic data of the respondents. As shown in this table, 64% of the respondents were female and 36% were male. Respondents with a high school education accounted for 29.40%, while those with a university education accounted for 43.50%. Additionally, 14.10% of the respondents held a master’s or doctoral degree. Most of the respondents were employed as public or private employees (72.90%), while smaller groups included pensioners (2.40%), unemployed (2.40%), and those who engaged in household duties (2.40%). Finally, 68.20% of the respondents stated that they reside in the municipality of Acharnes, whereas 12% reported living in other municipalities.

In responses regarding green spaces in their area of residence (

Table 2. Green spaces in the participants’ place of residence.

Variables		Frequency (n = 85)	Percentage (%)
Are there any green spaces where you live?	Yes	63	74.10
	No	22	25.90
	Missing values	0	0
What kind of green space do you often visit?	An urban park	65	76.50
	An urban garden	1	1.20
	A forest	14	16.50
	A school garden	3	3.50
	Other	2	2.40
	Missing values	0	0
How far from your home is this green space?	Less than 200 m	12	14.10
	200–500 m	18	21.20
	More than 500 m	54	63.50
	Missing values	1	1.20
How do you get to the green space of your choice?	On foot	22	25.90
	By bicycle	0	0
	By motorbike/car	62	72.90
	By public transport	1	1.20
	Missing values	0	0
How often do you visit the green space of your choice?	One time/week	24	28.20
	One time/month	15	17.60
	Several times/month	32	37.60
	Several times/year	14	16.50
	Missing values	0	0
Why do you visit this green space?	To meet other people	7	8.20
	To improve my physical condition	15	17.60
	To play with my children	54	63.50
	To observe nature	2	2.30
	To take my pet for a walk	0	0
	To relax	5	5.90
	Other	2	2.30
What would you improve in the green space you often visit?	Structures for resting and relaxation (benches, etc.)	33	38.80
	Infrastructure for sports (playground, sports facilities)	22	25.90
	The microclimate (shaded areas)	5	5.90
	The aesthetic appearance of the site	4	4.70
	Cleanliness (e.g., rubbish bins, recycling bins)	18	21.20
	Hygiene conditions (e.g., availability of toilets, showers, washbasins)	2	2.30
	Accessibility	0	0
	Other	0	0
Are you satisfied with the availability of green spaces in your area?	Yes	22	25.90
	No	63	74.10

), the majority of the respondents, regardless of gender, education, and age (74.10%), reported the presence of green spaces in their place of residence. The most popular choice was the urban park, which 76.50% of the respondents reported visiting. Most respondents stated that they needed to travel more than 500 m to reach their preferred green space (63.50%), and, for this commute, they primarily used a motorbike or car (72.90%). Additionally, 37.6% of the respondents reported visiting green spaces several times per month, with the primary purpose being playing with their children (63.50%). Τhe largest percentage of respondents (74.10%) expressed dissatisfaction with the condition of green spaces in their residential area. The main points for improvement that were identified were structures for resting and relaxation, such as benches (38.80%), infrastructure for sports, including playground and sports facilities (25.90%), and cleanliness, such as the provision of rubbish and recycling bins (21.20%).

Based on the respondents’ answers regarding the contribution of green spaces to public health and their social value (

Table 3. Social value of green spaces, their influence on public health, and their relationship with nature and status of property.

Variables		Frequency (n = 85)	Percentage (%)
Urban green spaces improve public health.	I agree	81	95.30
	Disagree	4	4.70
	Do not know/no answer	0	0
The presence of green spaces within urban settings facilitates the strengthening of social networks and interactions.	I agree	82	96.50
	Disagree	3	3.5
	Do not know/no answer	0	0
The frequent use of green spaces increases our respect for nature.	I agree	85	100
	Disagree	0	0
	Do not know/no answer	0	0
Free access to green spaces is a basic right of all citizens.	I agree	85	100
	Disagree	0	0
	Do not know/no answer	0	0
Everyone should have access to green spaces within 200–500 m of their home.	I agree	78	91.80
	Disagree	1	1.20
	Do not know/no answer	6	7.10
More green spaces are needed in the city.	I agree	85	100
	Disagree	0	0
	Do not know/no answer	0	0
Increased allocation of funding should be directed toward the development of urban green spaces.	I agree	83	97.60
	Disagree	1	1.20
	Do not know/no answer	1	1.2
Additional funding should be allocated for the maintenance of urban green spaces.	I agree	83	97.60
	Disagree	1	1.20
	Do not know/no answer	1	1.20
What you consider most important and most beneficial and why:	The presence of a private garden near my house *	8	9.40
	The presence of an open public green space near me **	75	88.20
	Missing values	2	2.40
Do urban gardens play a role in maintaining the balance between the built and natural environments in urban areas?	Yes	80	94.10
	No	3	3.50
	Missing values	2	2.40
*: I prefer the presence of a private garden near my house because...
1	“It is aesthetically well-kept”
2	“For healthy eating”
**: I prefer the presence of an open public green space near me because...
1	“Green is a social good”
2	“For a better sustainable life”
3	“Because contact with the earth is an integral part of us”
4	“For frequent and free use”
5	“Because there are too many children and not enough green spaces”
6	“Everyone should have equal access”
7	“Everyone should have access”
8	“Because then everyone can go”
9	“Because it will be for everyone”
10	“Because it should be free for everyone”
11	“Because there are areas with limited green space and we need it”
12	“So we can have access”
13	“Because it is everyone’s right to use the green space in the city”
14	“It should be accessible to all of us”
15	“Because it is everyone’s right to enjoy it”
16	“For free outdoor activities close to nature”
17	“For everyone to have access regardless of their economic status”
18	“So that we can all go out somewhere”
19	“Free access regardless of economic status”
20	“Free access”
21	“Access for all”
22	“A gathering of many people, not just a few”
23	“Access to more people, thus more socialization”
24	“So that we can go whenever we want”
25	“So that as many people as possible can go”
26	“So we don’t have to pay to get in”
27	“Because nature belongs to everyone”
28	“Free access”
29	“Free access”
30	“So that we don’t have a restriction on entry”
Missing values	53

), it appears as though the majority emphasized their importance, with 95.30% and 96.50%, respectively, highlighting these aspects. Respondents agreed that the more such spaces are used, the more citizens have the opportunity to learn to respect the nature around them and appreciate its value. Without exception, all respondents stated that they agreed with the right to free access to green spaces and expressed the belief that more of such spaces are needed in the city. The majority of respondents stated that they would prefer to have a green space close to their home (200–500 m) for use (91.80%). The percentage of those who indicated that an increase in state funding would be needed for both creation and maintenance of green spaces were similarly high (97.60%). When asked what they considered to be more beneficial, a private or a public garden near their home, most respondents (88.20%) chose the latter option, primarily because a public garden would allow everyone access, regardless of their socio-economic status. It is noteworthy that the majority of the respondents (53 out of 85) did not provide a rationale for their preference and perceived importance of having either a private or open public green space in proximity to their residence. Ultimately, 94.10% of the respondents articulated their belief in the significant role that urban gardens play in sustaining the equilibrium between the built and natural environments within urban settings.

Based on the data presented in

Table 4. Awareness of legal protection related to urban greenery and proposals for the enhancement of the human–nature nexus.

Variables		Frequency (n = 85)	Percentage (%)
Do you know what the term “green infrastructure” means?	Yes	62	72.90
	No	21	24.70
	Missing values	2	2.40
Are you familiar with the term “nature-based solutions?	Yes	52	61.20
	No	33	38.80
Are you aware that there is a law on urban greening?	Yes	39	45.90
	No	46	54.10
Share a thought or suggestion about your daily life in the city and the relationship between man and nature in the city.
1	“Τhe need for more green spaces”
2	“People in the city have no contact with nature”
3	“We don’t give nature the value it should have”
4	“We don’t have enough green”
5	“There is no significant human–nature relationship in cities”
6	“There are no trees in cities”
7	“There is no daily human–nature contact”
8	“Building should take place but with respect for nature”
9	“Organize exercise activities in public green spaces”
10	“There is more concrete than green”
11	“Contact with nature is good for our mental health”
12	“A walk in nature fills you up”
13	“Nature is everything”
14	“I’d rather have the opportunity to exercise in nature than in a gym”
15	“I would prefer cleaner green spaces”
16	“I wish it was easier to access green spaces”
17	“Having vegetables grown by children is a very nice thing to do”
18	“Yes to trees, but not on the sidewalks”
19	“People are ungrateful to nature”
20	“No to cutting down trees”
21	“More public space = motivation for citizen contact with nature”
22	“More natural elements in cities”
23	“The urban environment now feels suffocating”
24	“We must learn to respect nature”
25	“Healthy environment = healthy people”
26	“Planting more fruit trees”
27	“We need more playgrounds and green spaces for our children to play”
28	“Natural beauty and oxygen for better living”
29	“Τhere are many areas with limited greenery that need strengthening”
30	“Μore green spaces = more oxygen”
Missing Values	53

, the majority of the respondents indicated that they were aware of terms such as “green infrastructure” (72.90%) and “nature-based solutions” (61.20%). Conversely, slightly more than half of the respondents (54.10%) appeared to be unaware of the institutionalization of urban greenery and of the existence of legislation pertaining to its protection. When asked to share their thoughts or reflections on how their relationship with nature in the city could be improved, their responses revealed a need for more green spaces and for the planting of trees, particularly fruit trees, to make the city more sustainable. Respondents emphasized that urban developments should not be constructed arbitrarily without considering the natural environment, and that their structural design should ensure that trees are placed in accessible areas where people can exercise, play with their children, recharge and relax to escape the fast pace of the city. Finally, respondents highlighted the importance and positive impact of green spaces on the mental and physical health of citizens, underscoring the need to respect the environment because it is an integral part of them, as they expressed. Again, more than half of the respondents (53/85) did not share thoughts or suggestions about their daily life in the city and the relationship between man and nature in the city.

The last questions that the respondents were asked to answer (

Table 5. Perceptions of school gardens as urban green spaces and their relationship with pollinators.

Variables		Frequency (n = 85)	Percentage (%)
Is the school garden a “green space” for you in the city?	Yes	71	83.50
	No	11	12.90
	Missing values	3	3.50
What feelings/ideas does the school garden evoke in you? *
Does the creation of a school garden affect the natural environment?	Yes	65	76.50
	No	19	22.40
	Missing values	1	1.20
	No	8	9.40
How important do you consider the role of bees in ecosystems?	Not important at all	0	0
	Slightly important	1	1
	Quite important	17	20
	Very important	31	36.50
	Extremely important	36	42.40
Do you think bees contribute to sustainability?	Yes	84	98.80
	No	1	1.20
Are you familiar with the term “pollination”?	Yes	61	72
	No	24	28.20
Do you believe that the establishment of school gardens in your area could contribute to the protection of pollinators?	Yes	76	89.40
	No	4	4.70
It is important for humans to interact respectfully with the non-human beings around them (e.g., insects, birds, plants).	I agree	83	97.60
	I disagree	0	0
Our interactions with non-human entities, such as insects, birds, and plants, significantly shape our perceptions of both the natural and the social environment.	I agree	82	96.50
	Disagree	1	1.20
Human beings hold a position of superiority over other species within the natural world.	I agree	35	41.20
	Disagree	45	52.90
	Do not know/no answer	4	4.70
	Missing values	1	1.20
In what ways do you believe bees facilitate a connection between people and the natural world?	As a bridge to a human–nature reconnection	16	18.80
	A gateway to the discovery of nature in urban spaces	4	4.70
	Through conservation initiatives	1	1.20
	All of the above	61	71.80
	None of the above	2	2.40
	Missing values	1	1.20
Initiatives aimed at protecting bees can contribute to the achievement of a more just and sustainable life.	I strongly disagree	2	2.40
	Disagree	0	0
	Neither agree nor disagree	15	17.60
	Agree	38	44.70
	Strongly agree	30	35.30
*: What feelings/ideas does the school garden evoke in you?
1	Love for the environment
2	Love and joy
3	I do not care
4	Memories of childhood
5	Memories of life in the village
6	Memories
7	I do not think it is for adults
8	I do not consider it to be a green space in the city
9	It is great
10	Excitement
11	Joy
12	I feel that it strengthens my bond with my children’s school
13	It brings back memories and images from childhood
14	I express myself freely
15	Pleasure and optimism
16	Calm
17	Joy and relaxation
18	Calm
19	Creative mood
20	Positive emotions
21	Optimism
22	Relief
23	Satisfaction
24	Calm
25	Prosperity
26	Pride
27	Very beautiful
28	Responsibility
29	Relaxation and nostalgia
30	Joy
31	Joy and creativity
32	Happiness
33	Joy and creativity
34	Creative mood
35	Mood for social interaction
Missing values	50

) were related to the creation of school gardens. The majority of the respondents (83.50%) indicated that they perceive school gardens as urban green spaces that elicit feelings of joy, excitement, creativity, pride, tranquility, and relaxation. However, more than half of the respondents (50 out of 85) did not specify the emotions or ideas that these school gardens evoke in them. Additionally, many respondents associated school gardens with rural life and their childhood experiences. A substantial majority (76.50%) believed that the establishment of school gardens could positively impact the natural environment, while 89.4% asserted that such gardens could serve as sanctuaries for bees and other pollinators. An overwhelming 98.80% majority acknowledged that insects contribute to sustainability and that, therefore, they merit human respect (97.60%). Nonetheless, this view was in contrast to the belief held by nearly half of the respondents (41.20%) that humans maintain a position of superiority over other species in nature.

A regression analysis was employed to investigate the relationships among variables. Specifically, a binary regression was utilized to assess how demographic factors—such as gender, age, and educational level—are associated with and influence the respondents’ answers.

Table 6. Correlation coefficient and statistical significance index (two-tailed test of significance, p < 0.05) for each demographic factor in relation to seven selected variables.

Kendall’s tau-b Correlation
	Frequency of green space visit		Satisfaction with presence/accessibility of green spaces
	Correlation coefficient	Two-tailed test of significance (p < 0.05)	Correlation coefficient	Two-tailed test of significance (p < 0.05)
Gender	0.17	0.85	−0.01	0.90
Age	−0.30	0.70	0.07	0.40
Education	−0.02	0.80	−0.16	0.12
	Perception of the school garden as a green space in the city		Understanding of the ecological role of bees
	Correlation coefficient	Two-tailed test of significance (p < 0.05)	Correlation coefficient	Two-tailed test of significance (p < 0.05)
Gender	0.15	0.20	−0.06	0.50
Age	0.10	0.20	0.10	0.09
Education	−0.20	0.04	−0.01	0.80
	View of human beings as being superior to non-human beings		Urban green spaces and their impact on public health
	Correlation coefficient	Two-tailed- test of Significance (p < 0.05)	Correlation Coefficient	Two-tailed- test of Significance (p < 0.05)
Gender	0.17	0.10	−0.06	0.50
Age	−0.09	0.30	−0.04	0.60
Education	0.04	0.60	−0.10	0.40
Protecting bees and achieving a fairer and more sustainable life
	Correlation coefficient		Two-tailed test of significance (p < 0.05)
Gender	−0.17		0.08
Age	0.15		0.10
Education	−0.07		0.40

presents the correlation coefficient and statistical significance index (two-tailed test of significance, p < 0.05) for each demographic factor in relation to seven selected variables: type of green space visited, frequency of visit, satisfaction with the presence and accessibility of green spaces, preference for private or public green space, perception of the school garden as a green space in the city, understanding of the ecological role of bees, the function of school gardens in safeguarding pollinators, and the perception of human beings as being superior to non-human entities. The Kendall tau-b correlation coefficient was chosen because the variables were not linearly related to each other, as evidenced by the scatter plots.

6. Discussion

The survey showed that, although most respondents acknowledged the existence of some green spaces in the city of Acharnes, they still seemed dissatisfied with both quantity and quality. According to their answers, commuting was required to visit a green space, as the one they chose was more than 500 m from their home. This distance limited their frequent access, contradicting the findings of previous studies that report that the benefits of urban green spaces are maximized when the latter are located within 300–500 m of a home or a 5 min walk from residents [10,11,12].

Moreover, Zhang and Chen [34] suggest that each citizen should have visual access to at least three trees, reside in a neighborhood with 30% green cover, and be within 300 m of a park. This emphasizes not only proximity but also visual connectivity to nature as essential to enhance urban living conditions.

Furthermore, Schindler et al. [36] indicate that there is an inverse relationship between residents’ selection of local green spaces and the distance they travel to access them. This assertion stands in contrast to the findings of the current study, particularly as illustrated in the scatter plot analysis (Figure 6), which does not reveal any clear linear relationship between the respondents’ satisfaction and the distance they travel to reach the green spaces. Moreover, the Kendall’s tau-b correlation analysis (

Table 7. Correlation Kendall’s tau-b of respondents’ satisfaction with the existence of green spaces in the area with the distance of the green spaces from the residence.

Correlations
			Satisfaction with the existence of green spaces in the area	Distance of green spaces from the residence
	Satisfaction with the existence of green spaces in the area	Correlation coefficient	1.000	0.205
Kendall’s tau_b		Sig. (two-tailed)	.	0.052
		N	85	84
	Distance of green spaces from the residence	Correlation coefficient	0.205	1.000
		Sig. (two-tailed)	0.052	.
		N	84	84

) shows that there was no statistically significant correlation between these variables. These results suggest that the relationship between satisfaction with green spaces and travel distance is more complex than previously observed, and that further investigation into possible mediating factors is required.

The majority of the respondents emphasized the desire for a safe, close-to-nature space for children to play, something which is in line with the findings of previous research [72,73]. An Australian study using photographic documentation of urban after-school activities for children revealed that 24% of play took place in open natural areas and 17% in parks and playgrounds. Confirming these findings, Tandy’s [74] survey of 421 Australian children aged 5–12 years found that 23% preferred to play in parks. In addition, Sallis et al. [75] explored parents’ evaluations of their choice of play areas, identifying safety and amenities such as toilets and availability of drinking water as primary factors. These studies highlight the importance of accessible, safe, and well-equipped green spaces for children’s outdoor activities in urban environments.

While the respondents mainly chose urban parks as their preferred green spaces, they expressed considerable dissatisfaction with the existing infrastructure in these areas. They supported improvements to facilities, including the addition of resting areas (benches), sports facilities, and playgrounds. Williams et al. [76] similarly highlight the critical importance of safety in open green spaces, emphasizing the need for adequate lighting and the reduction of blind spots. In the context of this case study, the dimension of the school gardens and the incorporation of lighting fixtures contributed significantly to ensuring safety. In addition, Heo and Bell [77] identify waste management facilities and physical activity equipment as fundamental features that enhance the desirability of green spaces. The school gardens examined in this study substantially, though not entirely, met these identified needs. Schoolyards, therefore, appear to be able to meet the recognized needs of citizens in relation to green spaces, giving them the green light to function as such for the public benefit.

A significant majority (83.5%) among the participants recognized school gardens as valuable green spaces in an urban context. These gardens elicited a range of positive emotions, including joy, excitement, creativity, pride, calm, and relaxation. Furthermore, many respondents associated school gardens with nostalgic memories of rural life and childhood experiences. The survey responses revealed a pronounced desire among residents for enhanced interactions with nature, evidenced by positive attitudes toward school garden initiatives. The respondents perceived these gardens to be instrumental in fostering children’s engagement with nature and in restoring connections with ecological systems. Tranquillity, accessibility, and aesthetic appeal are key motivators with respect to choosing green spaces, while size appears to be a less influential factor [36].

In addition, the respondents stressed the multifunctional role of school gardens as urban green refuges which provide cool and relaxing environments for people while simultaneously serving as protected habitats for non-human species, particularly insects. Notably, one schoolyard also accommodated two turtles that were rescued from a nearby street and subsequently placed in the yard by the teaching staff. This observation underscores the potential of school gardens to enhance urban biodiversity and provide essential ecosystem services, all the while addressing community demands for accessible green spaces.

Interestingly, more than half of the respondents (50 out of 85) did not articulate specific feelings or ideas related to school gardens. This lack of response could indicate a weak emotional or cognitive connection with these spaces for some individuals, or it may reflect uncertainty or indifference regarding their significance and impact. Such findings challenge researchers to conduct further investigations to understand the underlying factors contributing to this apparent disengagement, as well as the implications for the design and promotion of school gardens as vital components of urban green infrastructure.

Schindler [36] reports that gender does not significantly influence preferences for green spaces, a finding that is corroborated by the present study. In contrast, the scientific discourse has posited that educational attainment significantly influences citizens’ attitudes toward urban green spaces and their willingness to travel to these spaces [40,41]. However, the present study does not support this claim. Instead, this research reveals that, while educational attainment does not influence the selection and utilization of green spaces, it demonstrates a statistically significant and inverse relationship with the perception of school gardens as urban green spaces. This unexpected result suggests a more complex interaction between educational level and perception of green spaces than previously thought, necessitating further investigation into the underlying mechanisms that drive this nexus. One assumption under consideration is that, while higher education often correlates with greater awareness of environmental issues, this awareness does not always translate into a deeper connection with nature. Educated individuals may understand the importance of biodiversity and sustainability, yet still feel distanced from nature due to lifestyle choices that prioritize urban living and technological engagement.

Heo and Bell [77] highlight that accessibility to green spaces is often limited for individuals aged 64 and older. However, the current study found that age did not exert a statistically significant influence on the respondents’ preferences for or frequency of visits to green spaces. This discrepancy may be attributed to the availability of existing green spaces in the vicinity, including school gardens, which are readily accessible to individuals over 64 years of age. Furthermore, Schindler [36] indicates that individuals aged 55 years and older are less likely to travel substantial distances to access green spaces. This finding was not corroborated by the present study; among the 18 participants aged over 50 years, a significant majority (15 out of 18) reported traveling distances exceeding 500 m to reach green spaces. This pattern of behavior aligns closely with that observed in the more active age group of 25 to 55 years, as depicted in Figure 7.

The environmental impact of school gardens is widely acknowledged, with 76.5% of the respondents asserting that these spaces exert a positive influence on the natural environment. In addition, an overwhelming majority of 89.4% of the respondents believed that school gardens are vital refuges for bees and other pollinators, highlighting their role in supporting urban biodiversity. There was a broad consensus on the importance of insects for sustainability; almost all respondents (98.8%) recognized the vital contribution of insects to ecological health, while 97.6% stressed the need for humans to respect these organisms. This suggests a strong awareness of the interdependence between humans and non-human beings required to maintain an ecological balance. However, the belief in the superiority of humans over other species remains widespread, with 41.2% of our respondents holding this view. While there was considerable recognition of the positive environmental and social role of school gardens, particularly in terms of biodiversity and sustainability, there remained a notable anthropocentric view among many respondents. This anthropocentric perspective, the bias and discrimination in favor of the interests of the human species against members of other species is what Singer [28] calls ‘speciesism’.

Speciesism influences people’s attitudes toward the conservation of the environment and the ‘hierarchy’ of species, as it entails perceiving Nature’s purpose as serving human needs and desires, based on the view that humans have the greatest value in the world [29,30,31]. This position can have important implications for management strategies and for the broader discourse on human–nature relations. Furthermore, ambivalence or the lack of a strong emotional attachment toward projects such as school gardens for a significant proportion of the population could affect the overall support for and engagement with urban greening initiatives. Understanding and addressing these beliefs, as well as the emotional and moral engagement of citizens, is, therefore, deemed necessary to promote more effective environmental management and a more inclusive view of biodiversity that values all species equally.

7. Conclusions

School gardens have the potential to foster cooperation among pupils, teachers, guardians, and local community members, serving as a ‘bridge’ enabling the intergenerational transfer of knowledge and the cultivation of essential life skills [32]. This collaborative engagement can strengthen the school’s connection with the wider community. However, as Haritakis [33] notes, many schoolyards in Greece remain largely inaccessible and are characterized by sterile, biologically unproductive landscapes that lack visual and functional complexity, making them inhospitable for both nature and pupils. These environments are effectively gated, both literally and figuratively, as they are not accessable after school hours and during holidays. Consequently, members of the school community are confined to a rigid and normative framework [78].

The perception of school gardens as green spaces, as reported by the majority of the respondents in this study, reveals important information on their role as public and open spaces. There is also a clear demand for an increase in green spaces, particularly ‘open’ areas, within the urban environment. Therefore, school gardens emerge as a viable option to address this need. The limitations of our research stem from institutional restrictions around the use of school gardens and schoolyards after school hours. In light of this, our aim is to explore ways to mitigate these barriers by strengthening community action. Investigting grassroots initiatives to transform schoolyards into open green spaces and community-led governance in urban settings can play a critical role in promoting the reconnection between nature and society, advancing social and environmental justice, and ensuring equitable access to green spaces.

Our approach, inspired by Pechtelidis [18], emphasizes that schools should actively defend their role as critical institutions to promote social and environmental justice, particularly in urban settings [79]. The ongoing project aims to determine whether this initiative can transform school gardens into urban commons—community gardens defined as ‘open and shared spaces’. Rather than being owned or controlled by the state, these spaces can be used sustainably and justly by ‘community members’. Through active participation, mutual exchange, and cooperation, a sense of shared responsibility and collective identity emerges, fostering social equality, as schoolyards become accessible to all, including marginalized groups such as migrants and the elderly. Communities are beginning to implement governance strategies on various resources to establish themselves as legitimate “owners”, enhancing their resilience to external pressures, such as economic recession or environmental crises. By strengthening democracy [80] and by redefining local priorities, the urban context can transform in alignment with the residents’ visions.

School gardens, as “commons”, can establish the foundations and develop the framework to support a claim for equality and democracy. In this context, equality serves as the starting point and precondition for citizen action, rather than being an endpoint [18]. Therefore, there is an urgent need to further explore their function as ‘commons’. This ambitious transition toward the recognition of school gardens as community assets will ultimate lead us to a more sustainable, equitable, and nature-centric food system. The concept of food as a purely private good will be deconstructed and reconstructed as a community resource that can be collectively cultivated and shared equitably [81,82]. This approach not only addresses the urgent need for accessible green spaces in cities, but also enhances the overall quality of life across neighbourhoods by promoting environmental health and biodiversity. Furthermore, local food production would increase as a result, addressing food insecurity while strengthening the functionality of school gardens. This brings both educational benefits for students and tangible advantages for the wider community.

The expansion of school-based green spaces presents a significant opportunity for future research, particularly in the context of broadening such initiatives to encompass a wider range of educational institutions. This expansion aims to enhance community engagement through collaborative practices, thereby fostering social solidarity and justice.