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Article

Enhancing Self-Awareness in Late Adolescents and Emerging Adults in Pakistan: A Randomized Controlled Trial of UNICEF’s Basic Life Skills Program

by
Urooj Sadiq
1,
Ayesha Irfan
2,
Khawer Bilal Baig
1 and
Luca Flesia
3,*
1
Department of Professional Psychology, Bahria University Lahore Campus, Lahore 54600, Pakistan
2
Independent Researcher, Gujranwala 52200, Pakistan
3
Azienda Ulss 6 Euganea, Veneto Region, National Health Service, 35131 Padova, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Adolescents 2026, 6(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents6020027
Submission received: 5 January 2026 / Revised: 25 February 2026 / Accepted: 27 February 2026 / Published: 9 March 2026
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Abstract

Background: Self-awareness is a core psychosocial competence supporting emotional regulation, adaptive coping, and psychological well-being during late adolescence and emerging adulthood—a developmental period marked by identity exploration and heightened vulnerability to stress. Life skills education programs, such as UNICEF’s Basic Life Skills Training Program (BLSTP), aim to strengthen these competencies; however, empirical evidence on the effectiveness of structured self-awareness interventions remains limited in low- and middle-income countries, leaving a significant gap in culturally grounded preventive research. Methods: A randomized controlled trial was conducted with 60 Pakistani university students aged 18–24 years, randomly assigned to an experimental group or a waitlist control group. The experimental group received the self-awareness module of the BLSTP, targeting self-esteem, stress management, emotional regulation, and positive thinking through structured group sessions. Standardized self-report measures were administered at pre-test, post-test, and follow-up. Data were analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA. Results: Compared to the control group, participants in the experimental group showed significant improvements across all self-awareness subdomains, with large effect sizes (partial η2 = 0.46–0.84). Gains were maintained at follow-up, indicating sustained intervention effects. Conclusions: The BLSTP self-awareness module appears to be an effective and culturally appropriate preventive intervention for enhancing key psychosocial competencies in late adolescents and emerging adults.

1. Introduction

Within a developmental life skills framework, articulated by the World Health Organization and operationalized by UNICEF [1,2], psychosocial development is conceptualized not merely as the absence of pathology, but as the progressive acquisition of transferable self-regulatory competencies that enable individuals to manage internal states and external demands effectively across developmental transitions. Within this model, life skills function as mediating mechanisms between developmental challenges and adaptive outcomes, fostering resilience, emotional balance, and effective social functioning.
These competencies are particularly relevant during late adolescence and emerging adulthood, as during this phase individuals face critical developmental tasks related to identity formation, increasing autonomy, and the consolidation of emotional and social functioning [1,3]. From a theoretical standpoint, within a developmental life skills framework, self-awareness occupies a foundational position, as it provides the cognitive–emotional basis upon which other competencies—such as emotion regulation, stress management, interpersonal effectiveness, and decision-making—can be developed.
The ability to recognize one’s emotions, values, strengths, and limitations is theorized to precede and enable adaptive self-regulation and positive cognitive appraisal. Accordingly, the UNICEF Basic Life Skills Training Program conceptualizes self-awareness as a core domain composed of self-esteem, stress management, emotional regulation, and positive thinking, which collectively support identity consolidation and psychosocial adjustment during late adolescence and emerging adulthood.
The Basic Life Skills Training Program (BLSTP), developed and promoted by UNICEF, is an evidence-based educational framework designed to equip children and young people with essential psychosocial and interpersonal competencies for effective functioning in daily life. Within a developmental perspective, the BLSTP is explicitly designed to support adolescents and emerging adults in navigating age-specific challenges, including emotional maturation, social role transitions, and increasing personal responsibility. Rooted in the definitions of WHO [2] and [1], the program emphasizes adaptive and positive behaviors that foster successful navigation of everyday demands. The UNICEF BLS model integrates three interrelated domains: self-awareness, involving recognition of one’s emotions, values, strengths, and limitations; interpersonal skills, including effective communication, empathy, and relationship-building; and decision-making or thinking skills, encompassing critical and creative thinking, problem-solving, and responsible decision-making. Through structured, participatory, and culturally adaptable training modules, the program empowers young people to make informed choices, enhance emotional well-being, and contribute positively to their families, workplaces, and communities. Furthermore, the BLS framework extends beyond formal education, being applicable in non-formal and community-based interventions that promote holistic youth development and resilience [4].
By learning strategies for emotional management, decision-making, and interpersonal functioning, young individuals can successfully navigate the transition into adulthood [3,5], fostering and acquiring/strengthening adaptive functioning. This transitional phase is increasingly conceptualized as a sensitive developmental window in which preventive interventions may have long-lasting effects on psychosocial adjustment.
While the BLSTP emphasizes the interconnected development of self-awareness, interpersonal skills, and decision-making, it is important to recognize that these competencies mutually reinforce one another and contribute collectively to adolescents’ growth [4]. Interpersonal skills shape the quality of social interactions, and decision-making enables young people to navigate challenges and opportunities. Yet, self-awareness provides the underlying orientation that allows both relational and decisional processes to be effective: only by understanding one’s emotions, values, strengths, and limitations can individuals engage meaningfully with others and make choices that align with their goals and well-being. For this reason, the following section focuses specifically on self-awareness as the foundational dimension within this framework [6,7].
Self-awareness refers to the ability to identify and understand one’s thoughts and emotions, as well as their relation to the external world, thereby promoting empathy [8] and self-control [9]. From a developmental standpoint, self-awareness represents a core process through which adolescents and emerging adults integrate emotional experiences with a coherent sense of identity. It enhances interpersonal understanding and conflict resolution skills [10]. Although important across the lifespan, self-awareness is especially critical during young adulthood—a period characterized by identity exploration, new social responsibilities, and increased vulnerability to stress. It shapes emotional regulation, emotional intelligence, and social functioning [11], supporting positive mental health outcomes [12]. Developing self-awareness at this stage promotes psychological adjustment and personal growth, addressing transitional vulnerabilities that, while not necessarily clinical, warrant timely intervention. Within the BLS framework, self-awareness includes four subdomains [3]: self-esteem, stress management, emotional regulation and positive thinking.
Self-esteem refers to individuals’ evaluation of their worth and capabilities [13]. High self-esteem fosters confidence, resilience, and effective stress management, while low self-esteem increases vulnerability to psychological distress and social maladaptation. Among young adults, low self-esteem is a major concern, with evidence showing its strong association with distress [14] and perceived stress [15]. Lower self-esteem levels are related to passivity [16]; conversely, high self-esteem levels enhance problem-focused coping and reduce avoidance strategies [17,18].
Stress management refers to an individual’s ability to recognize sources of stress, monitor their emotional and physiological responses, and apply adaptive strategies to regulate tension in challenging situations. Effective stress management is important because it protects cognitive functioning—such as attention, memory, and problem-solving—that is easily compromised under high stress [19]. It is also positively associated with emotional well-being [20], resilience [21], and healthier interpersonal relationships [22], as individuals who can regulate stress tend to communicate more constructively and respond less impulsively. Moreover, strong stress-management skills correlate with higher academic persistence [23] and better decision-making [24], as young people are more capable of evaluating options calmly rather than reacting out of pressure or anxiety.
Emotional regulation refers to the capacity to identify, understand, and modulate one’s emotional responses in ways that are appropriate to the context and supportive of desired outcomes [25,26]. It involves both the ability to down-regulate intense negative emotions and to harness positive emotions to sustain motivation and engagement. Emotional regulation is essential because dysregulated emotions can interfere with learning, social interactions [25,27], and decision-making [25], whereas effective regulation promotes psychological well-being [28], resilience, and social adaptability [29]. Strong emotional-regulation skills are associated with better conflict management, greater empathy [30], and more stable interpersonal relationships [25], as individuals can respond thoughtfully rather than react impulsively. Additionally, emotional regulation supports long-term goal pursuit by helping young people maintain focus and composure when facing setbacks or uncertainty.
Positive thinking, defined as maintaining an optimistic outlook and reframing negative experiences constructively, reduces perceived stress [31] and enhances emotional regulation. Habitual negative thinking contributes to emotional dysregulation [32]. Cognitive restructuring, a key component of the BLS training, has been shown to reduce psychological symptoms [33]. Developing positive thinking fosters resilience, adaptive coping, and well-being, supporting a healthier transition to adulthood.
The relevance of life skills education is particularly evident in developing countries, where young adults often face socio-economic hardship, limited access to mental health resources, and heightened psychosocial stress. In these contexts, structured life skills programs can enhance resilience, emotional regulation, and adaptive coping, contributing to improved educational, social, and occupational outcomes [34,35,36]. In Pakistan, young adults aged 18–24 experience a critical transitional phase marked by academic and career pressures, evolving social roles, and identity formation [37,38]. This age range largely overlaps with late adolescence and emerging adulthood, making it a particularly relevant period for developmental and preventive interventions. Building life skills—especially self-awareness—can equip this group with tools to recognize and manage emotions, reduce stress, maintain positive thinking, and cultivate self-esteem. These competencies are essential for managing early adulthood challenges and promoting long-term psychological well-being.
Despite the growing emphasis on youth mental health and skill-based education, empirical research on self-awareness as a psychosocial competency remains limited in the Pakistani context. Existing studies have largely focused on general well-being, academic performance, or stress, often overlooking the multidimensional construct of self-awareness and its subdomains—self-esteem, stress management, emotional regulation, and positive thinking—as defined in UNICEF’s Basic Life Skills framework. To the best of our knowledge, to date, the present study is the only one in Pakistan to have implemented the Basic Life Skills Program in full accordance with UNICEF’s prescribed methodology. In contrast, prior studies e.g., [39] did not evaluate all domains or include follow-up measures. The current research adheres to the official manual’s procedures, focusing on the self-awareness domain (self-esteem, stress management, emotional regulation, and positive thinking), with pre–post and follow-up assessments and proper clinical trial registration.
Considering Pakistan’s predominantly young population and the cultural norms that shape emotional expression, identity development, and interpersonal behavior, investigating the self-awareness domain is particularly meaningful. Youth in collectivistic and family-oriented societies may experience unique challenges in articulating emotions, forming a stable sense of self, and navigating stress within hierarchical social structures [40,41,42,43]. Understanding how these cultural dynamics intersect with self-awareness competencies is therefore essential for designing interventions that are developmentally and contextually appropriate.
Given the foundational importance of self-awareness in personal development, grounded in a developmental framework that views self-awareness as a key psychosocial task of late adolescence, the present study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of the self-awareness domain of the BLSTP in the Pakistani context. Self-awareness comprises four key subdomains—self-esteem, stress management, emotional regulation, and positive thinking—each contributing to individuals’ ability to understand internal states, make adaptive choices, and respond effectively to environmental demands. This study aims to generate preliminary evidence of the effectiveness and cultural applicability of the BLSTP self-awareness module among Pakistani young adults, forming an evidence-based foundation for future interventions.
Evaluating the effectiveness of the BLSTP, specifically its self-awareness component, among Pakistani young adults can provide culturally relevant and empirically grounded evidence for its use by educators, psychologists, and policymakers. Such evidence could inform future preventive and developmental interventions, promoting emotional resilience, adaptive coping, and psychosocial well-being among youth. Moreover, by establishing the psychometric soundness and contextual applicability of the program, this study aims to bridge a significant research gap and contribute to the global discourse on life skills education as a protective factor in emerging adulthood. Given these gaps, the present study conducted a randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness of the self-awareness module of the BLSTP on four core subdomains: self-esteem, stress management, emotional regulation, and positive thinking. In light of the significance of self-awareness for young adults’ psychosocial development and the limited empirical evidence in the Pakistani context, the present study formulated the following hypotheses to assess the effectiveness of the BLSTP in enhancing key subdomains of self-awareness:
(1)
Participants in the experimental group will show a significant increase in self-esteem after the application of the basic life skills training program BLSTP.
(2)
Participants in the experimental group will show a significant increase in stress-management skills after the application of the basic life skills training program BLSTP.
(3)
Participants in the experimental group will show a significant increase in emotional regulation after the application of the basic life skills training program BLSTP.
(4)
Participants in the experimental group will show a significant increase in positive thinking after the application of the basic life skills training program BLSTP.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants and Procedure

This study employed a true experimental research design, conducted from 5 August 2023 to 31 December 2023. The study was reviewed and approved by the Ethical Review Committee of Bahria University Lahore, Pakistan, ensuring full compliance with established ethical standards. Formal permissions were additionally obtained from the relevant Higher Education Institutions to collect data within their respective departments. Participants were recruited from universities in Lahore and ranged in age from 18 to 24 years. Only individuals living in intact families and with no self-reported history of physical or psychological diagnoses were included, in order to reduce heterogeneity and controlling for potential confounding variables in this initial efficacy-focused trial.
Initially, 100 students were approached and screened for eligibility. Participants scoring below 15 on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (see Section 2.2) were included, consistent with established cut-offs indicating low self-esteem in the original scoring framework. This criterion was used to focus the intervention on young adults presenting a psychosocial risk profile, given the well-documented association between self-esteem and emotional or affective dysregulation [44]. The final sample comprised 60 young adults (males = 36), all of whom from urban living area, belonging to middle socioeconomic status. Further, they were randomly assigned to two homogeneous groups: an experimental group (n = 30) and a control group (n = 30), with an equal ratio of 1:1. To achieve this goal, a randomization schedule was generated using permuted block randomization so that each block contained a random assignment to each of the two groups.
All participants provided written informed consent outlining the nature and purpose of the research. Due to the group-based nature of the intervention, blinding of the facilitator and assessors was not feasible. To minimize experimenter bias and social desirability effects, data collection procedures were highly standardized across assessment points. Participants completed self-report questionnaires individually and were informed that their responses were confidential, anonymous, and would be used exclusively for research purposes. They were explicitly encouraged to respond honestly, with no right or wrong answers, and were reassured that their responses would not affect their participation in the intervention or study outcomes. Participants were also informed that they could withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.
The same researcher administered the pre-test, post-test, and follow-up assessments and facilitated the intervention sessions; however, assessment administration followed a structured protocol and no feedback was provided regarding individual scores. Group allocation was not emphasized during assessment sessions, and outcome measures were collected in identical formats across experimental and control conditions.
Pre-assessment scales were administered to both the experimental and control groups. During the study period, the experimental group received the intervention, whereas the control group received no intervention. Both groups were informed that they would take part in a program assessing different aspects of personal functioning; however, no details were provided regarding which program was expected to produce specific effects.
Participants in the experimental group were thoroughly debriefed on the study’s objectives, the importance of completing the assigned tasks, the nature of session activities, homework expectations, and the anticipated effectiveness of the intervention. After the study concluded, the control group participated in a group counseling session focused on self-awareness skills, and individual sessions were additionally made available upon request.
The intervention was implemented in accordance with the standardized procedures described in UNICEF’s BLSTP manual. The entire data collection process (pre-test, post-test, and follow-up conducted after 5 weeks) for both groups was completed across a three-month period, covering all four subdomains of self-awareness: self-esteem, stress management, emotional regulation, and positive thinking. For the experimental group, each session lasted 90 min. Two homogeneous sessions (each 90 min) were conducted for each subdomain. All sessions were facilitated by the same researcher to maintain procedural consistency and minimize potential researcher bias. The 30 participants in the experimental group were divided into two subgroups based on availability.
The Basic Life Skills Training Program (BLSTP) was delivered in a structured, modular format, with each session targeting a specific psychosocial domain, including self-esteem, stress management, emotional regulation, and positive thinking. Each module combined brief psychoeducational components with experiential activities designed to promote active engagement and skill rehearsal. These activities included guided group discussions, individual and dyadic reflective exercises, role-play of everyday situations, and mindfulness-based practices. The intervention emphasized experiential learning and peer interaction within a supportive group context, allowing participants to practice and consolidate self-regulatory and cognitive skills. A detailed description of the intervention structure, session objectives, and core activities for each module is provided in Supplementary Material S1. All materials required for the training were provided to participants, including a student workbook, manual, pencil, eraser, pen, and relevant assessment scales. Following completion of the BLSTP, all subdomain scales were re-administered as post-assessments to both experimental and control groups. Upon completion of the follow-up phase, all participants were thanked for their cooperation. No monetary or material compensation was provided for participation.

2.2. Measures and Questionnaires

2.2.1. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

This widely used 10-item scale measures global self-worth by assessing positive and negative self-perceptions (e.g., “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself”). The scale is unidimensional, with items rated on a 4-point Likert scale. Scores are computed continuously, with higher values reflecting greater self-esteem. Cronbach’s α in the current study = 0.83 [45].

2.2.2. The Coping Scale

The Coping Scale [46]: This 13-item scale assesses coping skills, specifically stress management, by evaluating cognitive, emotional, and behavioral strategies used to deal with problems (e.g., “When dealing with a problem, I spend time trying to understand what happened”). Items are rated on a 4-point scale: 1 = not true about me, 2 = true about me, 3 = somewhat true about me, 4 = mostly true about me. Total scores are calculated as the sum or mean of all items, with higher scores reflecting stronger coping skills. In the current study, Cronbach’s α = 0.71.

2.2.3. The Emotional Regulation Scale

The Emotional Regulation Scale [47]: This 10-item scale measures individuals’ tendencies to regulate emotions through cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. Cognitive reappraisal (e.g., “When I want to feel more positive emotion such as joy or amusement, I change what I’m thinking about”) involves altering the trajectory of an emotional response before it is fully generated. Expressive suppression (e.g., “I keep my emotions to myself”) refers to inhibiting emotional expression in social interactions, which can impede communication and increase stress. Items are rated on a 7-point Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Cronbach’s α in the current study = 0.87.

2.2.4. The Positive Thinking Scale

The Positive Thinking Scale [48]: This 22-item scale evaluates patterns of positive and negative thinking about oneself, others, and the surrounding world. Eleven items assess positive thoughts (e.g., “I see much beauty around me”), and eleven assess negative thoughts (e.g., “I see my community as a place full of problems”). Negative items are reverse-scored, and total scores are computed by summing all items, with higher scores indicating more positive thinking. In the current study, Cronbach’s α = 0.77.

2.3. Statistical Analysis (SPSS 25)

Descriptive statistics (Mean & SD) were used to calculate sample demographic characteristics. We used the t-test and chi-square test of the scales used at the baseline assessment stage to make the group matchable and comparable on the variables of concern. After the conclusion of the trial, repeated measures ANOVA was used to investigate the differences between groups, time, and group × time interaction. Frequency distribution statistics were also used to find out the subdomains of self-awareness after treatment. An alpha of 0.05 was used for all analyses using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 26).
A mixed-design (Group × Time) repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted to examine intervention effects across pre-test, post-test, and follow-up assessments. Effect sizes were primarily interpreted using partial eta squared (ηp2) obtained from the ANOVA model. To facilitate comparison with prior psychological intervention studies reporting standardized mean differences, Cohen’s d was computed by transforming ηp2 values using established conversion formulas. The reported Cohen’s d therefore represents the magnitude of the Group × Time interaction effect, reflecting differential change between groups over time rather than simple between-group differences at a single assessment point or within-group change alone. As Cohen’s d was derived from ηp2, pooled or baseline standard deviations were not directly used in its calculation. Accordingly, the reported values should be interpreted as standardized estimates of the interaction effect within a repeated-measures framework rather than as conventional mean-based Cohen’s d.

3. Results

Recruitment attrition rate: 100 participants were initially assessed for eligibility, of which 40% were excluded. The remaining 60 participants were randomly allocated to the experimental (n = 30) or control (n = 30) group, maintaining a 1:1 ratio. Dropout rates were 1.67% in the experimental group and 5% in the control group. Mean age was 20.10 ± 1.53 in the experimental group and 19.53 ± 1.88 in the control group. Baseline characteristics did not differ significantly between groups (p > 0.05), indicating comparability (see Table 1 and Figure 1).
An independent-samples t-test was applied to the demographic variable of age, and chi-square tests were used for gender, semester, birth order, family system, fathers’ education, and mothers’ education. Results indicated that the experimental and waitlist control groups were homogeneous, with no significant differences in demographic variables (p > 0.05). With respect to self-esteem, a repeated-measures ANOVA revealed significant effects of time (F = 168.60, p < 0.001), group (F = 70.74, p < 0.001), and a significant time × group interaction (F = 61.51, p < 0.001), indicating differential changes between the experimental and waitlist control groups across assessments. Partial η2 indicated that 68% of the variance was explained by the intervention over time (see Table 2). As shown in Table 2 and Figure 2, mean self-esteem scores in the experimental group increased from pre-test (M = 24.50) to post-test (M = 32.73) and follow-up (M = 33.83), whereas the waitlist control group showed no meaningful changes across pre-test (M = 24.33), post-test (M = 25.16), and follow-up (M = 24.46). Regarding stress management, a repeated-measures ANOVA showed significant effects of time, group, and time × group interaction (all p < 0.001). Partial η2 indicated that 84% of the variance was accounted for by the intervention, reflecting a large effect size (see Table 2). As illustrated in Table 2 and Figure 3, the experimental group showed marked increases in stress-management scores from pre-test (M = 27.16) to post-test (M = 43.60) and follow-up (M = 42.00), whereas the waitlist control group showed no significant changes across pre-test (M = 28.56), post-test (M = 29.93), and follow-up (M = 29.86). With respect to emotional regulation, repeated-measures ANOVAs revealed significant effects of time, group, and time × group interaction for both cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression (all p < 0.001). Partial η2 indicated that 66% of the variance was explained for cognitive reappraisal and 83% for expressive suppression (see Table 2). As shown in Table 2 and Figure 4, cognitive reappraisal scores increased in the experimental group from pre-test (M = 23.56) to post-test (M = 33.80) and follow-up (M = 31.30), while the waitlist control group showed no meaningful changes across assessments. Similarly, expressive suppression decreased in the experimental group from pre-test (M = 20.93) to post-test (M = 19.90) and follow-up (M = 10.70), whereas no significant changes were observed in the waitlist control group (see Figure 5). Finally, regarding positive thinking, a repeated-measures ANOVA indicated significant effects of time, group, and time × group interaction (all p < 0.001). Partial η2 showed that 46% of the variance was explained by the intervention (see Table 2). As reported in Table 2 and Figure 6, positive thinking scores increased in the experimental group from pre-test (M = 13.50) to post-test (M = 18.86) and follow-up (M = 18.30), while the waitlist control group showed stable scores across assessments.
Standardized effect sizes (Cohen’s d) with 95% confidence intervals for Group × Time interaction effects are reported in Table 3.
As shown in Table 3, standardized effect sizes (Cohen’s d) for the Group × Time interaction were large to very large across all outcome variables, with all 95% confidence intervals excluding zero. This pattern indicates consistent and robust differential change over time between the experimental and control groups. Effect sizes were particularly pronounced for stress management and emotion regulation, while positive thinking showed comparatively smaller, yet still large, effects. These estimates should be interpreted as standardized interaction effects within a repeated-measures framework rather than as conventional mean-based Cohen’s d.

4. Discussion

The present pilot study examined the effectiveness of UNICEF’s BLSTP in enhancing self-awareness among young adults in Pakistan, focusing on four core subdomains: self-esteem, stress management, emotional regulation, and positive thinking.
Findings demonstrated substantial improvements across all domains, with the intervention explaining 46–84% of the variance in outcomes over time. These results suggest robust intervention effects; however, the magnitude of change may in part reflect methodological features of the study design, including the focus on participants with low baseline self-esteem. Effect sizes should therefore be interpreted cautiously, as discussed in the Limitations section. These effects were maintained at follow-up, indicating that BLSTP promotes durable gains in socio-emotional functioning. The results align with prior evidence suggesting that life-skills education fosters adaptive psychological competencies in youth [49]. From a developmental perspective, these findings are particularly relevant for late adolescence and emerging adulthood, a period characterized by heightened neurobiological plasticity and consolidation of psychosocial competencies.
Interpreting these findings requires consideration of the cultural context. In collectivistic societies such as Pakistan, self-perception is deeply embedded in interpersonal expectations, social approval, and familial norms. While such environments provide cohesion, they can also heighten vulnerabilities in self-awareness, as individuals may prioritize external expectations over personal needs [50]. As a result, young adults may oscillate between compliance and internal conflict, potentially increasing susceptibility to anxiety, withdrawal, aggression, and distorted self-evaluations. Consistent with previous research [51,52], results from the present study show that the BLSTP framework can effectively address these challenges by introducing psychoeducation on the concept of balanced self-awareness as an instrument that encourages individuals to recognize and connect with personal self-perception and overall well-being.
With respect to self-esteem, the findings supported H1, indicating a clear and sustained increase in participants’ perceived self-worth following the intervention. This pattern suggests that BLSTP’s effectively engaged self-reflective processes, that are central to identity development during adolescence and emerging adulthood. In particular, the self-esteem–focused activities of the program—such as positive self-presentation exercises, identification and sharing of personal strengths, values clarification, and structured positive peer feedback—may have facilitated a more balanced and internally anchored self-evaluation. By encouraging participants to explicitly recognize their personal qualities, successes, and values, these activities likely reduced reliance on external evaluation and fostered a more stable sense of self-worth. These effects may be particularly meaningful in collectivistic cultural contexts such as Pakistan, where self-perception is often shaped by family expectations and social evaluation and, therefore, young adults may be particularly vulnerable to self-criticism and fluctuating self-esteem, especially during adolescence and emerging adulthood, when identity formation is negotiated within family and community systems. Strengthening self-esteem at this developmental stage therefore represents a culturally relevant protective factor, reducing emotional vulnerability and promoting healthier long-term adjustment.
With respect to stress management, the findings supported H2, indicating substantial and sustained improvements in participants’ coping capacities following the intervention. This pattern suggests that the BLSTP effectively enhanced participants’ ability to recognize stress-related cues and to apply concrete regulatory strategies in response to demanding situations. In particular, the stress management module targeted stress awareness and coping through guided discussions on the nature of stress, identification of personal stress triggers, and experiential practice of adaptive strategies such as controlled breathing, mindfulness, and relaxation. Role-play activities addressing common stressors (e.g., academic and interpersonal demands), together with the development of individualized “anti-stress toolboxes,” may have facilitated the translation of coping concepts into actionable responses, enhancing perceived control over stressors and cognitive clarity under pressure. These effects are particularly relevant in the context Pakistani young adults, who frequently experience academic burden, job-market uncertainty, and limited access to mental-health services, making adaptive stress management particularly crucial. Given that stress regulation capacities are still developing during late adolescence and emerging adulthood, interventions targeting these skills may yield long-term benefits for emotional and academic trajectories, supporting academic persistence, healthier interpersonal functioning, and reduced reliance on maladaptive coping strategies [53,54]. Results are consistent with established research showing that mindfulness practices play a central role in reducing stress reactions [55], cognitive and behavioral flexibility to changing demands [56,57].
As regards emotional regulation, results supported H3, showing increases in cognitive reappraisal and decreases in expressive suppression following the intervention. This pattern suggests that the BLSTP effectively targeted adaptive emotion regulation processes by enhancing participants’ capacity to recognize, interpret, and modulate emotional responses. Specifically, activities focused on emotion recognition, cognitive reappraisal, emotional journaling, and role-play in emotionally salient situations may have facilitated the adoption of more flexible regulatory strategies, while mindfulness-based exercises targeting bodily awareness likely reduced reliance on late-stage regulation such as suppression. Within collectivistic cultural contexts, where emotional restraint is often encouraged to preserve social harmony and relational hierarchies, suppression represents a common but potentially maladaptive strategy when overused. The observed shift toward greater cognitive reappraisal, accompanied by reduced suppression, suggests that the intervention promoted regulatory styles that remain culturally compatible while supporting psychological well-being. Improved emotional regulation may facilitate conflict resolution, enhance social adaptation, and strengthen resilience during emerging adulthood [58,59,60,61].
Finally, as regards positive thinking, the findings supported H4, indicating significant improvements in participants’ ability to adopt more constructive cognitive patterns following the intervention. Results align with cognitive-behavioral principles and substantial evidence showing that practice in positive self-talk and training to identify common cognitive distortions are useful in replacing maladaptive thoughts with more balanced interpretations and positive affect [62,63,64]. Such skills are known to strengthen the ability to reinterpret challenges more constructively [62,63]. The positive thinking module, through activities focused on recognizing common cognitive distortions, practicing cognitive restructuring, engaging in gratitude-based exercises, and reframing failures as learning opportunities, may have strengthened participants’ capacity to reinterpret challenges more constructively and to maintain a more optimistic and hopeful outlook, even in the face of socio-economic uncertainty commonly experienced by young adults in Pakistan. From a developmental prevention standpoint, cultivating positive thinking is a relevant aspect during adolescence, especially in developing contexts, as it enhances resilience, reduces vulnerability to emotional distress, and supports long-term psychosocial adjustment.
Overall, the BLSTP showed strong cultural applicability and developmental relevance for Pakistani young adults. By equipping participants with practical tools for self-awareness and adaptive functioning, the program may contribute to improved individual well-being and broader community resilience, particularly in a collectivistic and resource-constrained context. These results support the inclusion of structured life-skills interventions within youth-focused preventive frameworks targeting adolescents and emerging adults.
The present study demonstrates several strengths. The intervention was implemented in strict accordance with UNICEF’s BLSTP, ensuring fidelity to an evidence-based and theoretically grounded framework. Conducted within a collectivistic Pakistani context, the study provides valuable insights into self-awareness development among youth whose identity, self-esteem, and emotional regulation are influenced by family, community, and social expectations. Unlike many prior studies, this research comprehensively assessed all four subdomains of self-awareness—self-esteem, stress management, emotional regulation, and positive thinking—using a randomized pre–post–follow-up design that allowed evaluation of both immediate and short-term sustained effects. Such methodological rigor enhances the relevance of the findings for developmental research focused on adolescence and emerging adulthood.
Nevertheless, several limitations should also be acknowledged. The sample size was relatively small and drawn exclusively from young adults enrolled in educational institutions in Lahore, belonging to intact families, living in urban areas and with middle socio-economic status, limiting the generalizability of results. Future research should address these limitations by including larger and more diverse samples, thereby improving external validity and informing inclusive preventive implementation. Moreover, although the study was framed within a developmental perspective, the sample size did not allow for adequately powered subgroup analyses across the 18–24 age range. Future studies with larger samples should examine potential age-related differences in intervention effects. The study employed a waitlist control rather than an active comparison group. This design choice precludes disentangling specific intervention effects from non-specific factors such as attention, expectancy, and social interaction. Future studies should implement active control conditions (e.g., study skills training or general health education) in order to reduce this possible confounding effect. Moreover, some methodological factors may have contributed to the large effect sizes observed. The selection of participants with low baseline self-esteem, while appropriate for preventive intervention research, may have increased susceptibility to regression to the mean, potentially inflating observed effect sizes; consequently, improvements cannot be attributed exclusively to the intervention, and effect size estimates should be interpreted with caution. Moreover, the exclusive use of self-report measures may have increased expectancy and social desirability effects. Future studies should recruit participants with a broader range of baseline characteristics to reduce the risk of regression to the mean and incorporate objective or multi-informant assessment methods, such as behavioral measures or informant reports, to minimize expectancy and social desirability biases. Longitudinal designs extending further into adulthood would also be valuable to assess the persistence of developmental gains initiated during adolescence.

5. Conclusions

Overall, the findings provide preliminary evidence that the Basic Life Skills Training Program (BLSTP) may represent a culturally relevant and psychologically robust intervention for enhancing self-awareness among young people in collectivistic settings. From a developmental perspective, these results are particularly salient for late adolescence and emerging adulthood, a critical phase characterized by identity consolidation, increasing autonomy, and heightened vulnerability to psychosocial stress. The structured, multi-component approach of the BLSTP appears to foster durable improvements in self-esteem, stress management, emotional regulation, and positive thinking–core capacities that underpin healthy psychosocial development and long-term well-being. Strengthening self-awareness during adolescence may contribute to more adaptive developmental trajectories by supporting emotional regulation, resilience, and constructive coping strategies, thereby reducing vulnerability to later mental health difficulties. The present findings highlight the potential value of implementing the BLSTP more broadly within schools, colleges, and community-based youth programs in Pakistan, where access to preventive mental health resources remains limited. Embedding structured life-skills education within youth-focused preventive frameworks may therefore represent a cost-effective and developmentally informed strategy for promoting psychosocial well-being in resource-constrained contexts. Scaling up such interventions could play a meaningful role in enhancing not only individual functioning but also broader community resilience and societal well-being among Pakistani youth. Future research should examine the differential contribution of specific self-awareness subdomains, explore potential moderating effects of gender and socioeconomic background, and investigate the long-term behavioral and psychosocial outcomes associated with early gains in self-awareness. In particular, longitudinal studies following adolescents into adulthood would be valuable for clarifying the persistence and developmental significance of the gains observed in the present study.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/adolescents6020027/s1, Supplementary Material S1: Detailed Description of the Basic Life Skills Training Program (BLSTP) Modules.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, U.S., A.I., K.B.B. and L.F.; Methodology, K.B.B. and L.F.; Data analysis, U.S. and K.B.B.; Investigation, A.I.; Supervision, L.F.; Writing—Original Draft: U.S., A.I. and L.F.; Writing—Review and Editing, U.S., K.B.B. and L.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with APA and approved by the Ethics Committee of University Bahria University-Lahore [protocol code BULC/2023/384; date of approval 3 July 2023] and Randomized trial registration no. (Pre-Registration): TCTR20231006005 (https://www.thaiclinicaltrials.org/show/TCTR20231006005) (accessed on 5 January 2026).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be made available upon reasonable request to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Adolescents 06 00027 g001
Figure 1. Participant flow diagram showing recruitment, screening, and randomization into experimental and waitlist control groups.
Figure 1. Participant flow diagram showing recruitment, screening, and randomization into experimental and waitlist control groups.
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Figure 2. Changes in self-esteem scores across pre-test, post-test, and follow-up assessments in the experimental and waitlist control groups.
Figure 2. Changes in self-esteem scores across pre-test, post-test, and follow-up assessments in the experimental and waitlist control groups.
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Figure 3. Changes in stress-management scores across pre-test, post-test, and follow-up assessments in the experimental and waitlist control groups.
Figure 3. Changes in stress-management scores across pre-test, post-test, and follow-up assessments in the experimental and waitlist control groups.
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Figure 4. Changes in cognitive reappraisal scores (emotional regulation) across pre-test, post-test, and follow-up assessments in the experimental and waitlist control groups.
Figure 4. Changes in cognitive reappraisal scores (emotional regulation) across pre-test, post-test, and follow-up assessments in the experimental and waitlist control groups.
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Figure 5. Changes in expressive suppression scores (emotional regulation) across pre-test, post-test, and follow-up assessments in the experimental and waitlist control groups.
Figure 5. Changes in expressive suppression scores (emotional regulation) across pre-test, post-test, and follow-up assessments in the experimental and waitlist control groups.
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Figure 6. Changes in positive-thinking scores across pre-test, post-test, and follow-up assessments in the experimental and waitlist control groups.
Figure 6. Changes in positive-thinking scores across pre-test, post-test, and follow-up assessments in the experimental and waitlist control groups.
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Table 1. Comparison of participants’ demographic characteristics group-wise and overall.
Table 1. Comparison of participants’ demographic characteristics group-wise and overall.
VariablesCategoryOverallGroups
Characteristics ExperimentalControlχ2/tp
N Total 100__
N ineligible 4020 (50.0%)20 (50.0%)
N allocated 6030 (50.0%)30 (50.0%)
Age (MSD) 6020.10 (1.53)19.53 (1.88)1.240.208
GenderMale (n%)3618 (30.0%)18 (30.0%)0.0001.00
Female (n%)2412 (20.0%)12 (20.0%)
SemesterFirst (n%)63 (5.0%)3 (5.0%)0.5380.997
Second (n%)105 (8.3%)5 (8.3%)
Third (n%)199(15.0%)10 (16.7%)
Fourth (n%)63 (5.0%)3 (5.0%)
Fifth (n%)74 (6.7%)3 (5.0%)
Sixth (n%)7 3 (5.0%)4 (6.7%)
Seventh (n%)53 (5.0%)2 (3.3%)
Birth OrderFirst (n%)1811 (18.3)7 (11.7%)1.5040.471
Middle (n%)2611 (18.3%)15 (25.0%)
Last (n%)168 (13.3%)8 (13.3%)
Family SystemNuclear (n%)2711 (18.3%)16 (26.7%)1.6840.194
Joint (n%)3319 (31.7%)14 (23.3%)
Fathers’ EducationIntermediate (n%)189 (15.0%)9 (15.0%)2.9810.395
Bachelors (n%)139 (15.0%)4 (6.75%)
Masters (n%)2310 (16.7%)13 (21.7%)
PhD (n%)62 (3.3%)4 (6.7%)
Mothers’ EducationIntermediate (n%)2011 (18.3%)9 (15.0%)1.1220.772
Bachelors (n%)177 (11.6%)10 (16.7%)
Masters (n%)169 (15.0%)7 (11.6%)
PhD (n%)73 (5.0%)4 (6.7%)
Table 2. Mean (standard deviation) and repeated-measure design during Pre-test, Post-test, and Follow-up intervention (BLSTP).
Table 2. Mean (standard deviation) and repeated-measure design during Pre-test, Post-test, and Follow-up intervention (BLSTP).
Groups Repeated Measure ANOVA
Experimental GroupWaitlist ControlGroupTimeGroup × Timeηp2
VariablesBaseline
M (SD)		Post-Test
M (SD)		Follow-Up
M (SD)		Baseline
M (SD)		Post-Test
M (SD)		Follow-Up
M (SD)		Fp-
Value		Fp-ValueFp-
Value
Self-Esteem24.50 (2.70)32.73 (3.11)33.83 (2.13)24.33 (2.35)25.16 (1.89)24.46 (2.60)168.600.00170.740.00161.510.0010.683
Stress Management27.16 (3.95)43.60 (3.45)42.00 (3.27)28.56 (4.05)29.93 (4.08)29.86 (3.98)45.870.001206.850.001148.1740.0010.839
Emotional regulation-------------
Cognitive Reappraisal 23.56 (4.71)33.80 (3.88)31.30 (4.25)22.50 (3.02)21.60 (4.94)21.26 (4.57)74.850.00139.970.00156.380.0010.664
Expressive suppression20.933 (1.43)14.06 (6.11)10.70 (2.89)21.16 (1.64)19.90 (3.63)21.20 (1.64)105.520.001143.190.001141.800.0010.833
Positive Thinking13.50 (2.11)18.86 (1.94)18.30 (1.87)13.20 (3.11)13.13 (2.41)13.63 (2.00)69.470.00125.550.00124.320.0010.461
Table 3. Cohen’s d values with CI95%.
Table 3. Cohen’s d values with CI95%.
VariableCohen’s dCI95%
LLUL
Self-esteem2.941.644.24
Stress Management4.562.836.29
ER-Cognitive reappraisal2.821.554.09
ER-Expressive suppression4.462.766.16
Positive thinking1.850.792.91
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Sadiq, U.; Irfan, A.; Baig, K.B.; Flesia, L. Enhancing Self-Awareness in Late Adolescents and Emerging Adults in Pakistan: A Randomized Controlled Trial of UNICEF’s Basic Life Skills Program. Adolescents 2026, 6, 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents6020027

AMA Style

Sadiq U, Irfan A, Baig KB, Flesia L. Enhancing Self-Awareness in Late Adolescents and Emerging Adults in Pakistan: A Randomized Controlled Trial of UNICEF’s Basic Life Skills Program. Adolescents. 2026; 6(2):27. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents6020027

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sadiq, Urooj, Ayesha Irfan, Khawer Bilal Baig, and Luca Flesia. 2026. "Enhancing Self-Awareness in Late Adolescents and Emerging Adults in Pakistan: A Randomized Controlled Trial of UNICEF’s Basic Life Skills Program" Adolescents 6, no. 2: 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents6020027

APA Style

Sadiq, U., Irfan, A., Baig, K. B., & Flesia, L. (2026). Enhancing Self-Awareness in Late Adolescents and Emerging Adults in Pakistan: A Randomized Controlled Trial of UNICEF’s Basic Life Skills Program. Adolescents, 6(2), 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents6020027

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