Influence of Service-Learning on Motivation, Prosociality, and Importance of Physical Education on Adolescents’ Students

Abstract

Social changes have significantly impacted the educational system at various levels, for example, through legislative reforms, and have consequently guided the teaching–learning process. One of the emerging methodologies is Service-Learning (SL), which directly affects student competence and promotes habits related to physical activity and health. The present quasi-experimental study examined the impact of an SL program on secondary school students (n = 112). The aim of the 16-session SL program, which was part of the Physical Education course, was to improve the physical condition and health of 18 sedentary older adults. The influence of this program on motivation, the prosocial climate, and the importance that the students attribute to the subject of Physical Education was assessed. The most significant results were found to be those related to the School Prosocial Climate linked to empathy (p < 0.05) and the motivational variable of Intrinsic Motivation for Stimulating Experiences (p < 0.01). In conclusion, it was determined that the implementation of a methodology based on SL has positive effects on students’ empathy and intrinsic motivation.

1. Introduction

Profound socioeconomic, technological, and cultural changes, especially in the last decade [1], have greatly influenced the teaching–learning (T-L) process, affecting the way students acquire knowledge and, consequently, the way teachers must deliver their instruction [2]. To adapt to these changes, it is essential to employ active methodologies that place students at the center of learning, giving them prominence that traditional methodologies do not [3]. Additionally, active methodologies that facilitate student experiences in a real context led to a profound restructuring of the T-L process [4]. This has an impact on didactic aspects, affecting fundamental elements such as the teacher–student relationship and the evaluation of both students and the process, and highlights the need for formative, educational, and integrative evaluation [5].

This is not a passing trend but a requirement at different levels supported by significant curricular changes introduced since the enactment of the Organic Law of Education 2/2006 [6] and its renowned “Competency-Based Teaching”, which has led to the consolidation of the Pedagogical Models described by Metzler [7]. This has shaped a pedagogical proposal with a theoretical basis and empirical foundation that demonstrates its value [8], giving rise to an emerging methodological direction, from which approaches such as the Sports Education Model, the Personal and Social Responsibility Model, and Service-Learning (SL), have originated [9].

Currently, Service-Learning (SL) plays a prominent role in current legislation as one of the didactic methodologies to consider when developing specific competencies related to sustainability, ecology, and community service [10]. It is explicitly stated that it serves “to promote the integration of the competencies worked on, […] to carrying out significant and relevant projects and to the collaborative resolution of problems, reinforcing self-esteem, autonomy, reflection, and responsibility” [10]. This excerpt largely justifies the intervention proposed in the present research as key competencies are integrated through a Service-Learning (SL) project, making it relevant, significant, and therefore capable of improving aspects related to self-esteem, entrepreneurship, and critical thinking [11].

Service-Learning (SL) is an experiential and dialogical methodology based on projects that emphasize a competency-based approach. It is defined as a methodological strategy that provides a service that benefits the community where the students reside, in which the participating agents are trained by engaging with the real needs of the environment with the aim of improving it [12].

As previous studies point out [13,14], this methodology directly impacts the level of competence acquired by students, especially in terms of entrepreneurship, civic–social competence, and social justice [15], as well as the levels of motivation toward the developed physical sports programs [16].

While most publications on Service-Learning (SL) and Physical Education (PE) are at the university level [11], there are also numerous studies showing how this pedagogical model can be a key element for the T-L process in school PE. These studies demonstrate SL’s role in enhancing key aspects such as the development of prosocial elements and positive attitudes toward various groups, including immigrants [17]; fostering the development of a more effective personality [18]; and addressing fundamental aspects during a crucial period in terms of students’ self-esteem. It is observed that many of the undertaken programs are directed toward raising awareness among involved students regarding socially disadvantaged groups, using physical activity and sports (PAS) as a socializing and inclusive tool [19].

SL has demonstrated multiple benefits in socially significant aspects such as teamwork, empathy, and critical thinking [20]. These benefits not only affect the students participating in these experiences but also the target group of the SL program, with positive effects on personal initiative skills [21] and leadership in intergenerational proposals [18]. SL practices involving older adults promote a valuable intergenerational exchange, where knowledge, skills, and experiences are shared between different generations. One of the most prominent effects of these types of SL projects is the development of empathy in students. By interacting with older adults, students learn to understand and appreciate the life experiences of this group, which fosters greater sensitivity to their needs and challenges. This mutual understanding is essential for building a more inclusive society [18,22].

As Corral-Robles et al. [23] state, SL projects should always be linked to the curriculum of the subject where they are developed. This provides an excellent opportunity to develop both the basic knowledge and the specific competencies of the area through comprehensive theoretical–practical training. In this way, key competencies such as civic competence or entrepreneurship are enhanced, with the number of hours dedicated to the program and its application being crucial to amplifying its effects [13].

These types of projects can be extremely useful for promoting the health of the recipients [24], i.e., older adult family members in this intervention, despite adding a significant burden (Figure 1). SL is a fundamental means of promoting health at all levels, generating physical activity habits that impact overall health [3].

The very nature of Service-Learning (SL) justifies its incorporation into secondary education, especially in a competency-based pedagogy [25], defined as a combination of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Knowledge consists of facts and figures, concepts, ideas, and theories that are already established and support the understanding of a specific area or topic. This includes skills, defined as the ability to perform processes and use existing knowledge to achieve results, while attitudes describe the mindset and disposition behind actions and reactions to ideas, people, or situations [26].

Thus, the aim of the present study was to analyze the impact of a 16-session SL program in Physical Education (PE) on students’ academic motivation and prosocial climate as well as to examine how methodology influences the importance they attribute to the subject.

2. Materials and Methods

The research is a quasi-experimental quantitative study with established non-random groups, conducted as a longitudinal design over a school term. The assignment of each group to either the experimental or control category was performed randomly; however, the composition of these groups was predetermined as the groups consisted of entire classes already defined at the start of the school year. Additionally, it is worth noting that the school’s criteria for forming these groups were based on the principles of diversity, ensuring that these classes shared comparable sociocultural makeup.

The collected information is related to the levels of motivation of the students, as well as their prosocial attitude and their evolution after participating in an SL program. After collecting the data, descriptive, inferential, and correlational analyses were performed based on different variables presented below.

2.1. Participants

The initial sample consisted of 126 participants, with the final sample comprising a total of 112 students (control group = 53; experimental group = 59) aged between 12 and 14 years (13.08 ± 0.47). The 53 members of the control group participated in a predominantly traditional methodology based on teaching styles such as task assignment or modified direct command, although microteaching was alternately employed at certain moments of the session. On the other hand, four stages of the SL program were applied in the experimental group, with a total of 59 students, as part of a global project in which the participants had to act as health promoters through PAS (Figure 2). The classes were allocated to the control and experimental groups due to convenience and the impossibility of altering this configuration. The exclusion criteria were as follows: (i) not belonging to the first year of the Spanish General Certificate of Secondary Education, (ii) not speaking Spanish or having significant difficulties in its use, and (iii) special educational needs with significant adaptations in the subject involved in this study.

A description of the study participants and a comparison of the sociodemographic variables (age median, gender, practiced religion, and whether they have repeated an academic year) are shown in

Table 1. Sociodemographic characteristics of the two participating groups.

	Experimental Methodology (n = 59)	Traditional Methodology (n = 55)	p-Value
Age median (DT)	12.32 (0.36)	13.14 (0.48)	0.000
Gender	N (%)	N (%)	0.417
Female	30 (50.8)	31 (58.5)
Male	29 (49.2)	22 (41.5)
Other option	-	-
Religion	N (%)	N (%)	0.991
Catholic	22 (37.3)	20 (37.8)
Muslim	31 (52.5)	28 (52.8)
Jewish	-	-
Non-practicing	6 (10.2)	5 (9.4)
Repeated course	N (%)	N (%)	0.056
No	57 (96.6)	46 (86.8)
Yes	2 (3.4)	7 (13.2)

for both the experiential (experimental group) and traditional (control group) SL methodologies. These participant details were obtained in the first stage of the data collection (pretest) because it was very unlikely that the sociodemographic variables of the students would change after the intervention (posttest). Therefore, the timing of data collection for participants’ sociodemographic variables was not a determining factor.

The students who formed the experimental group were organized into groups of 3–4 members, with each group member choosing a sedentary older adult who was a family member according to the following criteria: (a) man or woman over 50 years old; (b) performs less than one hour of moderate–vigorous physical activity per day [27]; (c) does not have any severe/terminal limitation or illness that prevents them from performing the proposed physical activities. The number of older adults who participated in the study was 18. Authorization to participate in the ApS programs was included in the consent the older adults had to sign for their children’s participation in the study.

Each group of participating students designed different personalized routines for their sedentary or minimally active family members, who had to carry out these routines outside of school hours for eight weeks with the students present. The students would collect evidence in video format to later show the involved teachers that the physical activities designed in class were carried out outside of it. This evidence was submitted through the Moodle platform in tasks designated for this purpose.

The study took place in a public Secondary Education Institute in the Autonomous City of Melilla. Beforehand, the parents of the participating students needed to sign an informed consent as the students were minors [28]. Subsequently, various questionnaires were completed using tablets provided by the center’s Information and Communication Technology department that collected information on the variables under study (in the Instruments Section), as well as another questionnaire to obtain demographic data of the sample.

Thus, the initial session (session 0) of the present study was used for students to complete the various questionnaires available on the Google Forms platform, where the obtained information was uploaded.

The intervention lasted 16 sessions over 10 weeks during the first term of the 2023/24 school year, specifically from 2 October to 11 December. These weeks included one weekly session in PE class for routine preparation and evaluation and another extracurricular session where the physical activity routine was practiced with one of the sedentary older family members. The objectives of the different routines are indicated in Table 2.

The basic knowledge [26] worked on was included in the didactic programming of the class group and course, thus maintaining what was established by the PE department. These contents are mainly related to promoting an active and healthy lifestyle, addressing these contents through games, directed activities, or strength and endurance tasks [9]. The experimental group approached these contents through a succession of different stages in which they configured their sessions to be carried out with the sedentary older adult based on a global project that complies with the guidelines established by Santos-Pastor et al. [29,30] (Table 2).

Table 2. Stages of development of the SL program [29,30].

	Phase	SL Strategies
Phase 1	Preparation	- Background and context: The students had no prior SL experience, making this a completely new experience for them. - Needs: Extending PAS outside school hours due to high levels of sedentary behavior [31,32]. Applying programs with sedentary older family members improves their motivation to serve their community. - Expectations: An improvement in motivation and prosocial behavior is expected in students who develop the SL program as well as the promotion of healthy habits related to physical activity and sports.
Phase 2	Design	- Design: Improvement of physical health fitness through fitness programs related to strength, endurance, and flexibility, following the guidelines of the ACSM [33] and WHO [27]. - Timing: The tasks developed in class were carried out throughout the first term of the 2023/24 school year within the different programming units that belong to the “Sponsor a Sedentary Person” project. - Reflection: The tasks developed in class must be applied by the students with their chosen sedentary older adult, and the students must show evidence of the completion of these tasks (video, heart rate monitor, or activity bracelet) on the educational platform Moodle.
Phase 3	Execution	- Follow-up: Four health fitness programs were developed in detail. These include the evaluation and reevaluation of health fitness levels (horizontal jump and step). - Reflection: The verification of evidence and time spent uploading evidence were controlled to avoid excessive burden. There was a possibility to form trainer groups. - Management: The ICT (Information and Communication Technology) teacher handled the MOODLE platform and edited evidence for uploading.
Phase 4	Evaluation and recognition	- Overall assessment: The project was well received by the students, with most of them applying for the sponsorship programs, although not all uploaded the evidence properly. - Indicators: A total of 72% of the students uploaded monitoring evidence through the Moodle educational platform. - Conclusions: This is a form of work that requires a significant workload for the teacher, who must control, evaluate, and grade the different submissions. The proposal to work in groups is the most appropriate due to the large number of students.

Table 2. Stages of development of the SL program [29,30].

	Phase	SL Strategies
Phase 1	Preparation	- Background and context: The students had no prior SL experience, making this a completely new experience for them. - Needs: Extending PAS outside school hours due to high levels of sedentary behavior [31,32]. Applying programs with sedentary older family members improves their motivation to serve their community. - Expectations: An improvement in motivation and prosocial behavior is expected in students who develop the SL program as well as the promotion of healthy habits related to physical activity and sports.
Phase 2	Design	- Design: Improvement of physical health fitness through fitness programs related to strength, endurance, and flexibility, following the guidelines of the ACSM [33] and WHO [27]. - Timing: The tasks developed in class were carried out throughout the first term of the 2023/24 school year within the different programming units that belong to the “Sponsor a Sedentary Person” project. - Reflection: The tasks developed in class must be applied by the students with their chosen sedentary older adult, and the students must show evidence of the completion of these tasks (video, heart rate monitor, or activity bracelet) on the educational platform Moodle.
Phase 3	Execution	- Follow-up: Four health fitness programs were developed in detail. These include the evaluation and reevaluation of health fitness levels (horizontal jump and step). - Reflection: The verification of evidence and time spent uploading evidence were controlled to avoid excessive burden. There was a possibility to form trainer groups. - Management: The ICT (Information and Communication Technology) teacher handled the MOODLE platform and edited evidence for uploading.
Phase 4	Evaluation and recognition	- Overall assessment: The project was well received by the students, with most of them applying for the sponsorship programs, although not all uploaded the evidence properly. - Indicators: A total of 72% of the students uploaded monitoring evidence through the Moodle educational platform. - Conclusions: This is a form of work that requires a significant workload for the teacher, who must control, evaluate, and grade the different submissions. The proposal to work in groups is the most appropriate due to the large number of students.

2.2. Instruments

A series of research instruments specific to the quantitative approach were utilized, comprising mainly standardized questionnaires of a specific nature, as presented below:

School Prosocial Climate Questionnaire [34]: This questionnaire consists of the following 10 items corresponding to 10 predefined categories of prosocial behavior:

-

Physical Assistance: Providing support to others in achieving a specific goal.

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Physical Service: Actions that eliminate the need for the recipients to physically intervene in completing a task, concluding with their approval.

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Giving: The act of giving objects, food, or possessions to others.

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Verbal Assistance: Providing verbal explanations or instructions or sharing ideas and life experiences that are useful and desirable for others.

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Verbal Comfort: Verbal expressions with the aim of reducing sadness and boosting spirits.

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Positive Confirmation and Valuation of Others: Verbal expressions that affirm the value of others or enhance their self-esteem, even in front of third parties.

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Deep Listening: Meta-verbal behaviors and attentive attitudes that express patient yet active receptivity to the contents.

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Empathy: Verbal behaviors that express cognitive understanding of the interlocutor’s thoughts or an emotional experience like theirs.

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Solidarity: Physical or verbal behaviors that indicate a willingness to share the often painful consequences of the unfortunate conditions of others.

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Positive Presence and Unity: Expressing psychological proximity, attention, deep listening, empathy, availability, assistance, and solidarity toward others.

It is answered using a Likert scale from 1 to 5 (1 = very rarely, 2 = sometimes, 3 = several times, 4 = often, 5 = almost always). The questionnaire was adapted for self-assessment of the frequency with which the students have experienced these behaviors, instead of co-evaluation, to facilitate data collection. This questionnaire shows high reliability values, both in the pretest phase (α = 85) and in the posttest phase (α = 0.84).

Academic Motivation Scale [35]: This questionnaire, validated and adapted for secondary school students, evaluates dimensions distributed across seven subscales, each containing 4 items, wherein students explain their reasons for attending school, totaling 28 items, as shown below ordered by the subscales. To simplify the description of the scale, an example is given for each of the subscales:

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Amotivation: “I honestly don’t know, I think I’m wasting my time at school” [5].

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External regulation: “Because I need at least a high school diploma/Vocational Training certificate to find a well-paying job” [1].

-

Introjected regulation: “To prove to myself that I am capable of finishing high school/Vocational Training” [7].

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Regulation identified: “Because it will help me make a better decision regarding my career orientation” [17].

-

Intrinsic motivation for knowledge: “Because I feel pleasure and satisfaction when I learn new things” [2].

-

Intrinsic motivation for achievement: “For the pleasure I feel when I excel in my studies” [6].

-

Intrinsic motivation for stimulating experiences: “Because I genuinely enjoy attending classes” [4].

Responses are rated on a seven-point Likert scale, where 1 indicates “strongly disagree”, 2 indicates “disagree”, 3 is “partially disagree”, 4 is the midpoint indicating moderate correspondence with “neither agree nor disagree”, 5 is “partially agree”, answer 6 indicates “agree”, and 7 indicates complete correspondence with “strongly agree”. This scale shows satisfactory internal consistency, with an average Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.80 and high temporal stability indices, with an average test–retest correlation of 0.75.

Questionnaire on the Importance of PE [36]: This questionnaire consists of three items designed to measure adolescents’ perception of the relevance and usefulness of PE classes. The items are as follows:

- I consider it important to receive PE classes.

- Compared to other subjects, I think PE is one of the most important.

- I think the things I learn in PE will be useful in my life.

Each item is rated on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 “Totally disagree” to 4 “Strongly agree” along with the middle options 2 “Quite disagree” and 3 “Quite agree”. Factor analysis of these items shows solid internal consistency, with values of 0.827, 0.814, and 0.818 for items 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Additionally, principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation gives a value of 2.01 for the grouping of factors related to the importance of PE, explaining 67.15% of the total variance. The reliability coefficient is 0.75, indicating a high correlation.

2.3. Procedure

This study has the approval of the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Granada (No. 3636/CEIH/2023) as part of the research “Influence of Dialogic Programs on Motivation, Prosocial Climate, and Importance of the PE subject in Secondary Education students”. Additionally, since the intervention took place in the educational field, approval for its implementation was obtained from the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MEFP).

The teaching staff at the study location approved the application of the questionnaires and the intervention with the participating students. Prior permission had been obtained from the management team to conduct the research, from the adults and students, and from the parents of participating minors. The students completed the questionnaires individually using tablets provided by the center through the Information and Communication Technology department. These questionnaires were completed entirely anonymously, and completion was monitored using an identification code provided by the teachers, both in the pretest (7–10 days before the start of the SL intervention) and in the posttest (7–10 days after the end of the SL intervention). These steps were carried out during the PE class during a playful session where the students attended in groups of eight to complete the questionnaires, which took them about 15 min to complete. This process was controlled by the teachers in charge of the research, and student/teacher roles were established to maintain control over the class when physical sports activities were carried out. The teachers themselves indicated to the students that their participation was voluntary and would not count toward the subject’s evaluation. No problems were encountered when the students completed the questionnaires.

Table 3. Sessions, contents, and strategies developed in the SL program.

Unit/Session	Main Content	SL Strategies	Phase
U2:S1	Initial evaluation. Autonomous warm-ups. Presentation and execution of physical condition tests.	Project proposal “Personal Trainers”. Objectives. Personal trainer groups (3 or 4).	1
U2:S2	Autonomous warm-up and cool-down. Fitness test application with a sedentary person (horizontal jump, modified seat and reach, and step test). Digital record templates.	Each group decides on sedentary older adults to train. The health fitness form for the trained person is completed. The roles of each group member (trainer, recorder, and judge) are decided.	1–2
U2:S3	Warm-up. Games to improve fitness with strength and aerobics elements. Special methods.	At home. Warm-up and perform fitness tests. Self-assess fitness level using the form.	2
U3:S1	Games with strength elements (hide and seek). Bodyweight circuit training. Monitoring training volume and intensity.	The established groups must take images to create their glossary of strength exercises with body weight. Roles are defined for strength tasks.	2
U3:S2	Games with strength elements (chase). Strength–endurance circuits using suspension exercises.	Each group creates a homemade TRX for suspension training with ropes or cable ties, and tape. Images of TRX exercises are taken for the exercise glossary.	2
U3:S3	Target games with strength elements. Strength–endurance circuits with external load exercises. Monitoring training volume and intensity.	Jugs, bottles, and poles are used to perform exercises with an external load. Images are taken for the glossary.	2
U3:S4	Autonomous session. Each group must complete their training session in full and self-evaluate it using the rubric. Maximum of 8 exercises.	The designed circuit is undertaken by the sedentary person. Evidence is taken in the form of images or videos. Images of the circuit and evidence of its completion are uploaded to the platform.	3–4
U3:S5	Explanation of HIIT (High-Intensity Interval Training). Differences from previous training. Importance of warm-up.	Images of high-intensity exercises are taken. The Tabata Timer app is set up. Roles are changed.	2
U3:S6	New HIIT session combined with postural hygiene elements.	Images of HIIT and core exercises are taken.	2
U3:S7	Autonomous session. The groups set up Tabata and core exercises. After review, they are applied in class, and any errors are corrected.	The postural exercises (planks) and the designed Tabata are performed by the sedentary person, repeating the same process of S4.	3–4
U4:S1	Presentation of rhythmic systems. Mini-session of basic aerobics, body combat, and Pilates.	The importance of BPM (beats per minute) is outlined, and an appropriate BPM for the trained subject is established.	2
U4:S2	Presentation of rhythmic systems. Mini-session of bodypump, jump rope routines, and yoga.	The specialty, basic steps, as well as BPM rhythm, are determined.	2
U4:S3	A basic aerobics routine (8 basic steps) and a brief session of 8 yolates (Yoga and Pilates) are set up, put into practice in front of classmates and co-evaluated.	The sedentary person undergoes the routines. Evidence is taken in the form of images or videos, repeating the same process of S4. Jump ropes are required for the next session.	3–4
U4:S4	Tail-stealing game. Jump rope challenges. Individuals, pairs, and trios.	Role changes. The role of the choreographer is introduced.	1
U4:S5	Group jump rope challenges. A simple routine of individual jumps with music (6 jumps) is created.	A basic jump routine is set up. The BPM and jump level for the sedentary person are determined along with alternatives in case of inability to jump.	2
U4:S6	Presentation of jump rope routines to classmates. Demonstration of different choreographies and co-evaluation of these.	The jump rope routine is performed by the sedentary adult, repeating the same process of S4. Health fitness levels are reevaluated.	3–4

lists the different sessions (S) developed as well as the strategies developed within the proposed SL program corresponding to the three units (Us) called “Personal Trainers” (U2), where the project is presented and the starting point is established, “Get in shape!” (U3); where strength is preferably worked on; and “Healthy Sauté” (U4), where students develop different aspects of cardiorespiratory capacity through rhythmic systems, jump rope routines, and body expression.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

Initially, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test was used to test for data normality, and it was found that the study variables follow a normal distribution. The mean, standard deviation, and the numbers and percentages of the variables evaluated in the three tables shown in the next section were calculated.

Student’s t-test was used to determine the differences between the experimental and control groups regarding sociodemographic variables. The magnitude of the differences between the evaluations (pretest and posttest in the same group; experimental and control) was measured with Cohen’s d test for effect size [37], interpreted as small (0.2 < d < 0.5), medium (0.5 < d < 0.8), or large (0.8 < d).

The pretest and posttest data of both groups were compared for the variables: importance of PE, Academic Motivation Scale, and School Prosocial Climate. Additionally, a stepwise multiple regression analysis was performed on the posttest evaluation to evaluate the possible association between the mentioned variables. According to Field [38], the ranges of values used to interpret the strength of relationships in a linear regression analysis (coefficient of determination; R²) are weak (0.01 < R² < 0.09), moderate (0.09 < R² < 0.25), or strong (R² > 0.25).

The order of variables entered in the different steps was based on the study objectives and on previous findings regarding the association between the three items of the questionnaire of the importance of PE, School Prosocial Climate, and the Academic Motivation Scale in secondary school students [39].

The statistical analyses in the present investigation were carried out with the IBM SPSS Statistics v.25 software package.

3. Results

Regarding the results obtained after the SL intervention in terms of the importance of PE, Academic Motivation Scale, and School Prosocial Climate (

Table 4. Differences in the questionnaire items on the importance of PE, School Prosocial Climate, and dimensions of the Academic Motivation Scale between the two participating groups.

	Experimental Methodology (n = 59)				Traditional Methodology (n = 53)
	Pretest	Posttest	p-Value	Cohen’s d	Pretest	Posttest	p-Value	Cohen’s d
Importance of PE (Items)
1. I think it is important to receive PE classes.	3.47 (0.85)	3.25 (1.09)	0.194	0.225	3.39 (0.83)	3.18 (1.17)	0.322	0.207
2. Compared with the rest of the subjects, I think that PE is one of the most important.	3.01 (0.86)	2.89 (0.92)	0.447	0.134	2.83 (0.95)	2.73 (1.01)	0.627	0.101
3. I think the things I learn in PE will be useful in my life.	3.06 (0.98)	3.05 (0.87)	0.909	-	3.28 (0.86)	2.83 (1.12)	0.027	0.450
Academic Motivation (Dimensions)
Amotivation	2.24 (0.93)	2.05 (1.16)	0.275	-	2.04 (1.06)	1.89 (1.01)	0.285	0.144
External regulation	4.41 (0.57)	4.48 (0.62)	0.505	0.117	4.49 (0.67)	4.51 (0.56)	0.934	0.032
Introjected regulation	4.12 (0.65)	4.17 (0.71)	0.611	0.073	4.18 (0.81)	4.22 (0.75)	0.715	0.051
Identified regulation	4.20 (0.62)	4.31 (0.66)	0.320	0.171	4.18 (0.72)	4.29 (0.69)	0.359	0.155
IM-to know	4.09 (0.64)	4.19 (0.65)	0.313	0.155	4.03 (0.78)	4.21 (0.72)	0.164	0.239
IM-to accomplishment	4.21 (0.65)	4.33 (0.68)	0.255	0.180	4.16 (0.93)	4.31 (0.68)	0.201	0.147
IM-to stimulation	3.50 (0.82)	3.85 (0.79)	0.007	0.434	3.67 (0.91)	3.76 (0.89)	0.549	0.099
School Prosocial Climate (Items)
Physical help	3.18 (1.04)	3.44 (0.85)	0.121	0.273	3.43 (1.24)	3.60 (1.29)	0.440	0.134
Physical service	3.13 (1.04)	3.10 (1.07)	0.849	0.028	3.61 (1.33)	3.71 (1.36)	0.598	0.074
Giving	3.06 (1.08)	3.15 (1.01)	0.651	0.086	3.45 (1.55)	3.62 (1.44)	0.497	0.113
Verbal help	3.57 (0.79)	3.71 (0.67)	0.321	0.191	4.47 (0.79)	4.18 (1.17)	0.149	0.290
Verbal comfort	3.32 (1.04)	3.59 (0.85)	0.092	0.284	4.03 (0.97)	3.71 (1.29)	0.123	0.280
CPAO	3.33 (0.95)	3.57 (0.89)	0.141	0.260	4.03 (0.93)	3.69 (1.27)	0.083	0.305
Deep listening	3.61 (0.66)	3.61 (0.80)	-	-	3.79 (1.24)	3.90 (1.19)	0.561	0.090
Empathy	3.00 (1.08)	3.40 (0.81)	0.022	0.419	3.26 (1.30)	3.56 (1.29)	0.194	0.231
Solidarity	3.01 (1.10)	3.15 (1.09)	0.484	0.127	3.35 (1.16)	3.58 (1.24)	0.224	0.183
Positive presence and Unity	3.52 (0.85)	3.45 (0.79)	0.655	0.085	3.79 (1.29)	3.75 (1.31)	0.872	0.030

IM: Intrinsic motivation; CPAO: Confirmation and positive appraisal of the other.

), the usefulness of the PE content learned in class was evident only in the group that followed a traditional methodology (control group) (p < 0.05), specifically in relation to item 3 “I believe that the things I learn in PE will be useful in my life.”

However, the results for the experimental group, which developed an experiential SL intervention, showed significance both in terms of School Prosocial Climate related to empathy (p < 0.05) and the motivational variable of Intrinsic Motivation for Stimulating Experiences (p < 0.01). However, to mitigate type 1 error in the analyses shown in Table 4, the significance level was adjusted from p < 0.05 to p < 0.01. Consequently, IM-to stimulation was considered a significant variable along with its corresponding effect size.

Table 5. Stepwise multiple regression analysis of the items of the questionnaire on the importance of PE, School Prosocial Climate, and the dimensions of the Academic Motivation Scale for both participating groups in the posttest evaluation.

	Experimental Methodology Group
Importance of PE (Items)	Step	Predictor Variable	B	ß	p-Value	R	R2	R2 Change	p-Value
1. I think it is important to receive PE classes.	1	Verbal help a	0.472	0.290	0.026	0.290	0.084	0.084	0.026
2. Compared with the rest of the subjects, I think that PE is one of the most important.	-
3. I think the things I learn in PE will be useful in my life.	-
	Traditional Methodology Group
Importance of PE (Items)	Step	Predictor Variable	B	ß	p-Value	R	R2	R2 Change	p-Value
1. I think it is important to receive PE classes.	1	Physical service a	0.329	0.381	0.005	0.381	0.145	0.145	0.005
2. Compared with the rest of the subjects, I think that PE is one of the most important.	-
3. I think the things I learn in PE will be useful in my life.	1	Physical service a	0.294	0.357	0.009	0.357	0.128	0.128	0.009

Model adjusted for practiced religion; B: unstandardized coefficient explaining the amount of change in the dependent variable (three items of the questionnaire about the importance of PE [36]; ß: unstandardized beta explaining the direct line (relationship) between the predictor variable and the dependent variable (three items of the questionnaire about the importance of PE); R: relationship model between two variables (dependent and independent); R²: independent variable explaining the percentage of variance in the dependent variable; PE: Physical Education. ^a School Prosocial Climate’s dimensions.

shows the independent associations of the three items from the questionnaire on the importance of PE with the dimensions of the School Prosocial Climate and the Academic Motivation Scale for both participating groups in the posttest evaluation.

According to item 1 regarding the importance of PE, verbal help was introduced in step 1 (R²: 8.4% of the variability, p: 0.026) for the group participating in the experimental methodology, and the strength of the relationships was weak. Items 2 and 3 showed non-significant independent associations with the remaining dimensions of School Prosocial Climate and the Academic Motivation Scale.

On the other hand, physical service was introduced in step 1 (R²: 14.5% of the variability, p: 0.005) and step 3 (R²: 12.8% of the variability, p: 0.009) for the group participating in the traditional methodology, showing a moderate relationship between variables. Item 2 showed non-significant independent associations with the remaining dimensions of School Prosocial Climate and the Academic Motivation Scale.

4. Discussion

The effects of a 16-session SL program in the PE area were analyzed in the present study. The impact of the program on academic motivation as well as on the prosocial climate of the school and the effects this methodology may have on the importance students attribute to the subject itself were evaluated. To achieve this, a quasi-experimental design was employed alongside a methodology using mainly traditional and participatory teaching styles to determine the level of changes that occurred once the program had been completed.

Previous studies related to SL have shown positive effects on the variables studied in this intervention, such as motivation [40] and prosociality [14]. Regarding the importance of PE, no previous studies related to this pedagogical model have been found.

Concerning prosociality, our study shows that the implementation of an SL experience fosters empathy in students, as improvement, determined by the effect size (0.419), was observed in how students rejoice in the happiness of others, a fundamental element within prosociality. Authors such as Batlle and Bosch [12] point out that this is an inseparable aspect of this methodology and leads to the generation of fraternal bonds. The results obtained in the present study are complemented by the experience described by Sánchez et al. [41], where improvements in prosocial aspects such as empathy and solidarity were also demonstrated. The improvement in these values is considered fundamental within the educational process, constituting one of the main challenges for the educational system [42].

As highlighted by García-Taibo et al. [43], SL can transform the involved students through the acquisition of prosocial behaviors in socially disadvantaged contexts and groups, promoting key competencies such as citizenship through the improvement of social sensitivity and awareness, the promotion of social justice, as well as the emerging construction of intercultural citizenship. This is of great relevance to our study, conducted in a fully intercultural context in the Autonomous City of Melilla, with the sample students being of Berber, Jewish, Christian, and non-religious descent. These students worked in groups through the different SL stages, cooperating to achieve the set objectives. One of the study’s limitations is the control of this intercultural variable in the sample and its relationship with the results. As described by Lamoneda et al. [17], improvements in prosocial attitudes and contributions to value education, as well as improved coexistence through the SL methodology in ES, are evident, in this case through the application of said program in adult–elderly groups [44].

Regarding motivation, the implementation of an SL program makes student learning a stimulating experience. This aspect has been widely referenced in the recent literature [45,46], being one of the elements most related to the implementation of SL. This increase in motivation, demonstrated by the results in relation to the p-value (0.07) as well as the effect size (0.430), toward experiences that stimulate students is determined by various important aspects of this methodology, such as teamwork [29] as well as the application of the learned content both outside and inside the school environment and the consequent benefit for the environment [40]. Additionally, both the acquired competence development and the attitudinal component in the SL sessions of this study, where students worked on physical condition and health to combat sedentary habits in the adult elderly group, are characteristics of SL programs with primary (EP) [18] or secondary [17] education students working with various groups or causes.

Another aspect to consider is the one evaluated in a study by Valero-Valenzuela et al. [47], which links teaching performance with intrinsic motivation and the adoption of an active lifestyle in Spanish students. Promoting student autonomy is essential to achieving the highest levels of motivation and participation during the teaching process, and this can be achieved by adopting active methodologies such as SL, where student emancipation is evident [48]. Thus, the role of teachers in the classroom is relevant through the support of autonomy, contributing to achieving higher levels of motivation toward stimulating experiences and a more active lifestyle. Additionally, the SL methodology promotes teamwork, fostering skills that enable effective communication in line with the aims of dialogic learning [24].

Another element to highlight is how SL promotes the performance of AFD linked to health, closely related to the importance that students attribute to the PE subject as a promoter of healthy habits [49]. In the present study, the influence of PE was expanded beyond the school environment in such a way that the proposals linked to SL programs, whereby the promotion of a healthy lifestyle was carried out by training sedentary elderly family members, proved to be an excellent promoter of healthy values, commitment, social involvement, and empathy toward others, both in the involved students and their families [9,50]. This fact indicates the social transformation capacity that the implemented methodology has with respect to the promotion of healthy habits and prosocial attitudes, as shown by the study conducted by Founaud-Cabeza and Santolaya-Del Val [51], in which there was an increase in the use of bicycles and, therefore, active transportation, in a school. Another example is the study by Ruiz-Montero et al. [18], showing that primary education students acquired a more critical and empathetic attitude toward others during an SL intervention with dependent elderly groups as part of the PE subject. Likewise, it was the adoption of these contents (basic knowledge) linked to health and physical activity, as well as respect for oneself and others, that produced significant results in the control group. This was specifically evident for the item “I believe that the things I learn in PE will be useful in my life”, since the traditional methodology focuses more on training methods to improve the physical condition of the students themselves and less on the application of this knowledge to other groups of people.

Regarding the regression analysis with the different variables of the study shown in Table 5, a significant relationship was observed in the experimental group between item 1 of the importance of the PE questionnaire and dimension 4 of the prosocial climate questionnaire (verbal help). This suggests that students who participated in experimental methodology consider it important to participate in PE classes and have better prosocial behavior, as indicated in their provision of verbal help to their peers. The model explained 8.4% of the variability in school prosocial climate, indicating a weak relationship. These findings are in line with previous studies, such as the study conducted by Rojo-Ramos et al. [52] who reported a positive relationship between the importance of PE and improved verbal communication elements. Additionally, the practice of physical sports activities improves prosocial behavior, being a fundamental avenue for the inclusion of students with special educational needs [53].

In the case of the control group, a moderate effect size was identified for item 3 of the PE importance questionnaire—“I think the things I learn in PE will be useful in my life”—suggesting that the application of a traditional methodology can positively influence the importance that students attribute to receiving PE classes as well as providing physical help to their peers. This relationship is justified by the moderate connection with engaging in physical activity that focuses on improving physical fitness and performance, which is typical of traditional PE teaching, suggesting it can increase the perceived importance of peers’ physical support [54].

It is important to note that different SL programs that were linked to basic physical capacities and oriented toward health promotion were implemented in the first trimester of the 2023/24 school year. This fact is relevant since the program investigated in this study was a first-year ESO course newly integrated into a secondary school, with significant changes occurring in the composition of the groups as well as in the assimilation of changes at different levels by the students [55]. Therefore, the unit prior to this study focused on group cohesion through the implementation of cooperative games and tasks, using Cooperative Learning [56] to promote the inclusion of these students, an aspect that might have influenced the current study, especially concerning the prosocial variable. However, this methodology was only developed over five sessions, which was insufficient to provoke significant effects.

This study demonstrated a positive relationship between the implementation of an SL program and student prosociality and motivation. Empathy, which involves the ability to understand and share the feelings of others, is one of the values that most effectively strengthens a prosocial classroom climate [57]. Furthermore, educational experts highlight the importance of fostering intrinsic motivation, which is critical for encouraging autonomous and experimental learning [58].

As suggested by various authors [29], there is a lack of evaluation of the effects of SL, a scarcity of instruments and procedures to evaluate these effects both in students and the recipient groups, and an absence of diversity among existing SL programs.

One of the main limitations of the study is the lack of control over the participants’ activity outside the curricular schedule and the promotion of AFD outside the school environment, which complies with the forty-sixth additional provision of the Organic Low of Education (OLE): “Promotion of physical activity and healthy eating” [6], complemented by the modification of OLE [10]. Despite evidence of the completion of the different proposed tasks, the dedication of each participant was not exactly quantified. Another limitation is the duration of the SL experience. The program barely reached 8 weeks, which is a timeframe shorter than others carried out with this methodology. However, it can still be considered to be within a suitable intervention range [19].

Fernández-Bustos conducted a study that hybridizes SL with the pedagogical model of Sports Education, showing that the combination of both methodologies creates an ecosystem that fosters the development of socioemotional aspects linked to the learning of the sport itself and offers positive experiences for all participants, including those who provided the service to the community [59]. Therefore, future lines of research should consider this aspect and determine which elements of each methodology promote comprehensive student learning. In this way, we can employ and implement strategies from various pedagogical models in the daily development of classes. This allows us to readily adapt a methodology such as SL to other experiences based on models like the Personal and Social Responsibility Model or Sports Education. This adaptation is achieved through elements transferable between these methodological approaches, such as group organization, effective communication, role adoption, and the promotion of progressive autonomy—features that are inherent to active methodologies focusing on students.

5. Conclusions

The main results obtained in this study support the relationship between SL and key variables in the T-L process, such as motivation and a prosocial climate. The importance of this model becomes even greater given that, according to the best of our knowledge and the prior literature review, there are few references to this type of pedagogical experience in secondary education. Therefore, we believe it is essential to consider not only the findings at the results level but also the methodological and pedagogical elements that should be described clearly and concisely, with the aim of encouraging new experiences in this educational field, which, as previously mentioned, offer significant benefits for students.

Furthermore, it is important to highlight that this study was conducted with students in a highly vulnerable stage, transitioning from primary to secondary education in the Spanish system. Facilitating this transition through stimulating experiences is fundamental, as observed in the implementation of SL programs. While motivation can be an advantage, excessive motivation can lead to disruptive behaviors, which are already frequent during this educational period. We must therefore emphasize the capacity of this type of pedagogical initiative to enhance empathy, one of the most relevant prosocial elements.

The results obtained should be interpreted with caution due to the various limitations outlined above. This study is cross-sectional, meaning that causal relationships cannot be categorically established to affirm that the differences observed are solely due to the implementation of the SL program; they may also be influenced by the contextual and cultural profile of the participants. Thus, future research is warranted to confirm and strengthen the presented results. Finally, it is worth noting that this study can be highly useful in guiding secondary education teachers on how to implement this active methodology in their classes, not only in PE but also in any other subject, as the method is entirely transferable to other disciplines. It provides real-world experiences aimed at improving students’ surroundings, reinforcing a key aspect of the current educational system—meaningful learning.