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Article

Impact of COVID-19 on Afterschool Programming Outcomes: Lasting Implications for Underserved Early Adolescents

by
Patrick Leung
1 and
Lindamarie Olson
2,*
1
Graduate College of Social Work, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77004, USA
2
School of Social Work, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35401, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Adolescents 2025, 5(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5010007
Submission received: 9 December 2024 / Revised: 3 March 2025 / Accepted: 4 March 2025 / Published: 6 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Youth in Transition)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Background: Afterschool programs (ASPs) funded under the 21st Century Community Learning Center (CCLC) Act were designed to provide a safe environment for students to engage in extracurricular programming. COVID-19 disrupted the school environment leading to numerous negative outcomes for students and parents, as well as teachers and school administration. The effects of COVID-19 continue to be felt as educational disparities persist, creating opportunities for afterschool programming to help lessen the gaps. Methods: Based on the lasting impact of COVID-19 and the lack of literature on ASPs, the purpose of this study is to compare the effectiveness of a 21st CCLC ASP from spring 2019 to spring 2020 to account for the initial effects of the global COVID-19 pandemic. Our aims were to (1) examine the differences in student ratings of various ASP outcomes the semester before and semester during which COVID-19 began, and (2) determine if student grade level impacts ratings of various ASP outcomes. Findings: Results showed that family involvement significantly increased from before to during COVID-19 and that early adolescents had significantly worse outcomes related to family, friends, grades, and overall opinions of the ASP during the pandemic than those in younger grades. Conclusions and Implications: Recommendations for ways to increase engagement in ASPs for both families and youth transitioning to higher grade levels are discussed.

1. Introduction

In the United States, the 21st Century Community Learning Centers (CCLC) Act authorized $25 million to provide grants for extracurricular educational services and recreational programming to benefit students and families in both rural and inner-city areas [1,2,3,4]. The 21st CCLC programs evolved through the private sector when the Mott Foundation partnered with the Department of Education to provide training and technical assistance to funded CCLC sites [3]. Afterschool programs (ASPs) such as CCLCs were designed to address the unsupervised time between the end of the school day and parents returning from work [2] by providing a safe place for children to receive academic and enrichment experiences. Research has found ASPs to be valuable in promoting positive youth development and well-being [5].
The three main program areas under CCLC programs include academic enrichment, youth development activities, and family literacy and support programs [6,7]. Anderson-Butcher (2004) describes the wide range of services 21st CCLC programs offer beyond these three areas, including health and nutrition courses, sports, recreational activities, the arts, prevention programs for substance use, gang activity, and teenage pregnancy [8]. These 21st CCLC programs are specifically designed within local communities to meet the unique needs of students in those areas [8,9]. For example, inquiring about barriers the community may face such as staffing and funding resources [10], transportation, and family responsibilities such as taking care of siblings is crucial in offering an inclusive program that engages all participants [11].

1.1. Evaluations of Afterschool Programs

Although ASPs have maintained interest and financial support for many years, few recent and rigorous evaluations have been conducted to ensure they are improving academic and behavioral outcomes. In 1999, Mathematic Policy research conducted a three-year national evaluation of the 21st CCLC program [3]. Over the years, the program has received increased government funding to provide enrichment activities to children in low-performing schools [3]. A previous evaluation of a 21st CCLC found that afterschool programming had a positive academic impact in reading, language, and social studies [3]. Further, many studies have found that greater attendance at ASPs yields greater academic benefits [12,13,14]. In a follow-up longitudinal study of individuals who participated in LA’s BEST program, results demonstrated students having better school attendance up to seven years after leaving the program [15]. This finding was consistent with other studies which found that longer duration of participation in ASPs was associated with increased growth on multiple academic outcomes [16].
Further, a meta-analysis of 35 outcome studies found that ASPs have positive effects on academic achievement among at-risk students [17]. Previous research has found that attendance and involvement in ASPs is related to improvements in test scores, grades, behavior, attendance, and promotion rates [5,18,19,20]. In a concurrent mixed model design addressing the impact of an ASP for economically disadvantaged youth, comprehensive ASPs that included elements of character development and social skills were more valuable as opposed to academic supports alone [21]. Additionally, youth in 21st CCLC programs had better school attendance and future educational expectations in general [22]. Further, afterschool programing was associated with increased engagement and reduced risk behaviors such as substance use and truancy [18,19], as well as improved social skills and decreased problem behaviors [5]. In an evaluation of an ASP for high school youth, statistically significant differences were found favoring the ASP for positive youth development and problem behaviors, but not in marketable job skills and academic outcomes [23].
Several studies found no influence on ASPs on academic achievement [24,25], while other researchers found no influence on ASPs on school attendance and problem behaviors [20,26]. Further, in a systematic review examining the impact of ASPs on delinquency outcomes, authors found a small and nonsignificant effect [2]. Some cited reasons for some of these nonsignificant findings include the lack of quality and systematic implementation of ASPs [5,17]. Further, ASPs are often heterogeneous, leading to inherent limitations in the generalizability of evaluation results [5,26,27]. In addition, multiple ASP evaluations lack rigorous methodology due to the ethical inability of randomly assigning students to treatment and control groups.
Beyond the quantity of ASP experiences nationally, the quality of ASPs is equally as important in predicting academic performance [28]. In a study addressing the relationship between the quality of program and attendance among elementary and middle school students, an environment with greater supportive and increased opportunities for structured interactions was associated with improvements in test scores [29]. Four quality characteristics of ASPs known to increase academic outcomes include the following: (1) inclusion of academic activities; (2) strong links with ASP programming material to the school’s curriculum; (3) highly qualified and trained staff; and (4) partnerships with the schools, community agencies, and parents [30]. Additional quality strategies implemented in earlier ASPs include targeted training, regular staff observation, and use of evaluation data to measure progress [31]. To address quality indicators for ASPs, the use of a Quality Benchmark Score Sheet is recommended that addresses key benchmarks including program organization (i.e., program administration), program environment (i.e., student health and well-being), and instructional features (i.e., variety of activities) [15]. Additionally, ASPs that maintain a level of competence when offering services have been found to promote better outcomes among students, whereas ASPs that have higher levels of stress among staff who may struggle to provide services may not provide the same benefits to students [32].

1.2. Lasting Impact of COVID-19 in Education

The COVID-19 pandemic introduced numerous challenges for schools, adding to the complexity of providing safe and quality afterschool care for youth in under-resourced communities. Many schools became incapable of meeting the critical needs of high-risk youth, particularly regarding mentoring and mental health support and access to free and reduced meals, which further exacerbated the disparities commonly noted in under-resourced communities [33]. Although significant literature on the effects of COVID-19 on academic achievement and general school outcomes exists, few studies have addressed its impact on ASP outcomes. De Oliveira Major et al. (2023) conducted a study comparing youth who attend ASPs and those who did not on social skills and behavioral problems pre- and post-COVID-19 [34]. They found that students enrolled in ASPs demonstrated improved social skills and fewer behavioral problems than those who did not attend, but higher levels of hyperactivity were found among both groups post COVID-19 [34]. A study on the effectiveness of virtual programming during COVID-19 found that students who had ongoing positive relationships with both peers and program staff had better experiences with the virtual programming format [35].
Although the immediate impact of COVID-19 has lessened, the impact on education has persisted. In Betthauser et al. (2023)’s systematic review, they discuss how overall learning deficits have persisted with those from low socio-economic backgrounds being at higher risk [36]. In the U.S., a 2024 study cites the Average American student is “less than halfway to a full academic recovery”, with sharp declines in students being at grade level in reading and math since 2019, with learning loss being considered a compounding debt [37]. Schools cite chronic absenteeism being up 13% since 2019–2020 [37]. Thus, it is critical that schools find ways to increase student engagement with school and provide opportunities for students to receive extracurricular programming to catch them up to grade level.

1.3. Present Study

Based on the lasting impact of COVID-19 and the lack of literature on ASPs, the purpose of this study is to compare the effectiveness of a 21st CCLC ASP from spring 2019 to spring 2020 to account for the initial effects of the global COVID-19 pandemic. Our aims were to (1) examine the differences in student ratings of various ASP outcomes the semester before and semester during which COVID-19 began, and (2) determine if student grade level impacts ratings of various ASP outcomes. We hypothesized that ASP outcomes would be worse in spring 2020. We chose to explore effects by grade level as developmental stages and educational needs of school-aged children can vary greatly. The stage of early adolescence is generally defined as capturing ages 10–14, and is noted as a neglected stage of development [38]. In the U.S., 5th and 6th grade often comprises these age groups. Thus, our hypothesis was that early adolescents (those in 5th or 6th grade) would have better outcomes than younger children (those in 3rd or 4th grade) due to more independence and technology literacy.
To achieve these aims, this study evaluates a 21st CCLC program in a large, southwestern U.S. metropolitan city that operates ten sites at seven elementary schools and three middle schools. The program provides activities to help students complete homework assignments, obtain tutoring services, and engage in enrichment activities while also helping families engage in their children’s education, including opportunities for literacy and related educational development.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, this 21st CCLC program changed the format of their ASP to include virtual programming. During this time, program staff remained in contact with parents and students and provided virtual extracurricular activities to keep the students engaged in the learning process. Some of these included activities such as Building Your Dream World Using Snapology, Name that Flag Game, Playing Go Fish, and Disney Inspires. In the Disney Inspires activity, one of the staff members looked at quotes from movies in the Disney catalog that provide applicable lessons to real-life within the dialogue spoken by Disney characters. The select passages from Disney movies demonstrate motivational relevance and real-life challenges that occur in the children’s lives every day. Through such activities, staff were able to facilitate students’ motivation and connection with each other and other supportive adults.

2. Methods

2.1. Survey Development

The authors developed and pilot-tested a survey for students participating in ASP programs to ensure clarity, length, and age-appropriate content for school-aged children. The survey was developed as part of a larger evaluation using literature on afterschool outcomes, federal reporting requirements for the grant, and input from stakeholders in the ASP. To evaluate the ASP, five main outcomes were assessed measuring family, friends, safety, school, and the effectiveness of the ASP. Developed surveys included quantitative and qualitative data and were pilot-tested and sent to participating parents and students in fall of 2019 (late November to early December) and in spring 2020 (late April to early May). In fall 2019, students received a paper survey while in the ASP and parents received an e-survey. In spring 2020, the student survey was adapted to an e-survey format based on the shift to virtual programming for COVID-19 and parents received the same e-survey as in the fall. All participants were informed that their participation was voluntary and that they would not receive compensation. Additionally, all human subject issues were reviewed and approved by the participating schools.
For the quantitative data, students were asked to rate their agreement on a five-point Likert scale with statements regarding their family (Cronbach’s α = 0.688) (e.g., “I talk to my family about my homework or what I’m learning in school”), friends (Cronbach’s α = 0.786) (e.g., “I feel accepted by other kids in the afterschool program”), safety (Cronbach’s α = 0.768) (e.g., “I feel safe while attending the afterschool program”), school and grades (Cronbach’s α = 0.745) (e.g., “The afterschool program helps me get better grades in math at school”), and the afterschool program (Cronbach’s α = 0.951) (e.g., “The afterschool program has adults who care about me”).
Qualitative data included questions such as who they would be with and where they would be after school if they were not in the ASP, their favorite activity, and what they have learned in the ASP.

2.2. Analytic Plan

IBM SPSS V.29 was used for all analyses. Descriptive statistics were used to describe key demographic factors regarding the sample. Bivariate analyses were conducted to determine any significant differences between sociodemographic variables and student outcomes for the multivariate analyses. Gender was recoded as 0 = male and 1 = female; ethnicity was coded as 0 = Hispanic and 1 = non-Hispanic; and grade level was coded as 0 = 3rd or 4th grade and 1 = 5th or 6th grade. Binary logistic regressions were conducted to measure various outcomes based on group (those prior to COVID-19 and those during COVID-19). As grade level was significant in bivariate analyses, it was controlled for in the independent logistic regressions.

3. Results

3.1. Descriptive Statistics

In the fall of 2019, 317 students completed the survey instrument at their programming site. Over half of the students were in 5th or 6th grade (n = 189, 59.6%), identified as male (n = 180, 56.8%), and 163 (51.4%) identified as Hispanic or Latino. In spring 2020, 61 students responded to the survey using an online format. Over half were in 3rd or 4th grade (n = 34, 55.7%) and identified as male (n = 33, 54.1%). In contrast to fall 2019, 63.9% (n = 39) reported they were not Hispanic or Latino. (see Table 1).

3.2. Binary Logistic Regressions

Five independent binary logistic regressions were conducted to determine the relationship between groups (0 = fall 2019 pre COVID-19, 1 = Spring 2020 during COVID-19) regarding five dependent variables measuring student outcomes (family involvement, making friends in school, feeling safe in afterschool, academic grades in school, and the effectiveness of ASPs) based on a five-point Likert-type scale using binary logistic regressions (see Table 2). The assumptions of logistic regression were met. Mean composite scores for each student outcome were categorized into 0 = lowest to 3.999; 1 = 4.000 to 5.000. Demographics were included as control variables but none of them were statistically significant except for grade level.
Students in spring 2020 increased the likelihood of having family involvement at 4 or higher by 2.567 times compared to students in fall 2019 (p = 0.033). However, the analysis indicated that each unit increase in the grade level reduced the likelihood of family involvement by 25.5% (p = 0.015) (R2 = 0.176; χ2 = 36.361; p = 0.000). The COVID-19 pandemic did not have a significant impact on the other four dependent variables including making friends, safety in the ASP, academic grade performance, and overall effectiveness of the ASPs. However, the analysis indicated that each unit increase in the grade level reduced the likelihood of making friends by 29.8% (p = 0.002); reduced academic grades by 23.8% (p = 0.019); and reduced the likelihood of ASP effectiveness by 38.7% (p < 0.001).

4. Discussion

The COVID-19 pandemic led to significant changes in afterschool programming across the world that are still felt today. The purpose of this study was to identify how COVID-19 began to change afterschool outcomes at the start of the pandemic and to determine if the pandemic impacted early adolescents differently than younger school-aged children. Findings from this study demonstrated that family involvement was the only factor with significant differences pre- and during COVID-19, but when comparing factors based on grade level, students in older grades had significantly lower outcomes in family involvement, friends, academic grades, and overall opinions towards the ASP. This was in contrast to our hypothesis and as this trend has continued past the immediate effects of the pandemic, this provides an important implication for how to better engage youth transitioning from primary to secondary grade levels in afterschool programming.
Family involvement with the ASP increased during COVID-19, which was surprising as previous literature on the effects of COVID-19 on parental involvement highlights the challenges and frustration faced by both parents and teachers during this time period regarding communication, engagement, and online classroom management [39]. Since the ASP may have provided a break for parents, their desire to be involved and have their kids connected to extracurricular programming may be seen as mutually beneficial. However, students in older grades had less family involvement and significantly worse grades from pre- to during COVID-19. This could be due to parents’ perception that older students were more capable of working independently, because older students often have a more challenging workload, or that individual learning styles were more difficult to engage with from a virtual setting.
Older students also reported increased difficulty with making friends, demonstrating how the transition from in-person to online learning affected students’ level of belonging and social connection. This was consistent with other findings showing the impact of the loss of normal social support systems for children during the pandemic [40]. Larivière-Bastien et al. (2022) highlight how virtual communication with peers was a helpful way for peers to stay connected but was not as effective as face-to-face connections for socialization [41]. Future afterschool research should focus on the unique social challenges faced by youth in transition between elementary and middle school, and how to best prepare elementary grade levels for peer relationships as they enter new schools.
Safety was an insignificant factor for both the pre- and during COVID-19 comparison and grade levels. This finding illustrates a common theme of safety in both the in-person and online settings for students, demonstrating how the intentional work of ASP staff ensured an environment where participants felt at ease.
We found that the ASP was less liked and less effective among older students. Thus, finding ways to engage older students in age-appropriate activities within an ASP context is important. Qualitative results of the ASP prior to COVID-19 indicated that students who felt like they had a voice in the program planning felt more engaged and had an increased desire to participate in the program. Encouraging students to voice their input in program planning, even with virtual online programming, may assist in increasing older students’ willingness to participate in the programs. This finding has been supported by research that described children in ASPs feeling more engaged due to having opportunities to choose and explore their interests [42]. Having more opportunities for ownership and to develop skills in using their voice to advocate for themselves is an important characteristic of early adolescence, and ASPs can serve as a unique site for this development to take place.
As expected, the sample size from before to during COVID significantly decreased in youth who transitioned to virtual programming. Although this could be seen as a methodological concern, we believe it highlights the impact of COVID-19 on ASP engagement, especially with minority adolescents. In fall 2019, the majority of students who responded to the paper survey identified as Hispanic/Latino. When the survey was administered online during spring 2020, the majority of students who responded identified as non-Hispanic/Latino. Research on media literacy and access to technology shows disparities in technology and broadband access, with students who identify as White being more likely than Hispanic/Latino students to have access to the internet at home [43]. As this ASP serves predominantly Hispanic/Latino schools, insufficient access to technology may have impacted children’s ability to not only respond to the survey, but also to effectively engage in virtual afterschool programming. This may have led to lower participation rates and academic grades, particularly among higher grade-level students (as higher grade levels necessitate more sophisticated technology). This assertion was common in other low-income communities during COVID-19 where resources and technology were limited [35,44], and is an important area for further research.

4.1. Implications for Afterschool Programs in a Post-Pandemic World

This study provides a snapshot of how ASPs were beginning to change as COVID-19 transformed the educational landscape and is still relevant today as we think about how to adapt to its long-term educational and developmental impacts in low and underserved communities. Although many ASPs are back to normal operations, research in the U.S. describes funding concerns, staffing shortages, and waitlists as major barriers to returning to pre-pandemic conditions [45]. As the immediate impact of pandemic relief funding has lessened, researchers note the importance of investing in extracurricular programming that helps students catch up and draws them to school.
ASPs can adapt programming needs to focus on addressing learning gaps and promoting learning recovery. Research on the long-term impacts of COVID-19 show that from 2019 to 2024, Black and Hispanic students and those in middle- and low-income communities have seen larger declines in test scores than their white peers [46]. ASPs should collaborate closely with schools to align curriculum and programming needs. Providing individualized academic support such as one-on-one tutoring can help reduce the gap and get students back to grade level. Further, integrating STEM activities and hands-on learning can engage students in creative ways outside of the traditional classroom.
As many ASPs shifted to a virtual platform only during the pandemic, we recommend ASPs continue to support online components for students who prefer virtual engagement. Hybrid ASPs can offer flexible learning opportunities that may best meet the needs of diverse students. With the use of technology, ASP staff should be trained on innovative, digital tools to better support students in both the online and in-person programming formats. To accomplish these goals, schools should invest in digital literacy and access, ensuring all students have the necessary devices and internet capabilities.
As ASPs also serve a significant role for parents, we recommend that ASP staff focus on family and community engagement, helping to strengthen partnerships with parents to support at-home learning. Offering workshops to parents on mental health, technology use, and homework support can provide parents with the tools and confidence to extend afterschool learning to home as well.
Given the way the pandemic affected the mental health of students, we believe ASPs should increase their focus on mental health and social emotional learning (SEL). This can be accomplished by training staff in trauma-informed care and SEL strategies, creating peer support groups, or partnering with mental health professionals through the school or community to provide accessible services. We recommend that school social workers take an active role in supporting students alongside the ASPs through counseling, family support, and providing resources for students both at home and school. We also suggest that bilingual social workers be hired to support schools that have a significant number of minority students.
Finally, we recommend that all ASPs be free for students, given how longitudinal data show that the return on investment in ASPs significantly exceeds the cost of the programs [12]. Continuing to prioritize the ongoing needs of ASP programs to provide extracurricular support can help bolster performance and aid in students getting back to grade level.

4.2. Limitations

The study sample was based on findings from under-resourced public schools located in rural counties. Thus, the results may not be generalized to more resourced public or private schools or schools located in urban counties. Although the study compared students from pre- to during COVID-19, we were unable to match exact student responses to track individual changes over time. However, the aggregated data demonstrate overall trends in afterschool outcomes for diverse students in various grades. Key demographic factors collected were limited based on school requirements of what could be shared. Further, as COVID-19 had significant impacts on mental health and well-being [47,48], especially among adolescents [49], outcomes of this study may be a result of worsening mental health. Our data did not capture mental health symptomatology or diagnoses among students, and thus, this association must further be explored. We were also unable to fully assess the virtual programming option and how it has evolved over time. Understanding barriers to technology access and how that might impact engagement in education and ASPs is an important area for further research.

5. Conclusions

ASPs play a vital role for many students in having a safe and enriching environment in the time between the end of the school day and their caregivers returning home from work. This study demonstrates the effects of the pandemic on afterschool programming, especially for older students in early adolescence, and discusses ways for ASPs to adapt for long-term recovery. As our results show nuanced differences based on grade level, ASPs should be designed with age, developmental stage, and preparation for transition to higher grade levels in mind. Future research should examine afterschool outcomes among students in higher grades to determine more effective ways to increase curricular support, enhance prosocial skill development, and actively engage students in afterschool programming. Increasing intentional programming for youth making the transition from elementary to middle school may lead to better outcomes for early adolescents. As research demonstrates the return on investment that ASPs provide, we recommend increased research, attention, and funding be allocated to support their long-term success in a post-pandemic world.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.O. and P.L.; methodology, L.O. and P.L.; formal analysis, P.L.; writing—original draft preparation, L.O.; writing—review and editing, P.L.; supervision, P.L.; project administration, P.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This project was funded by the 21st Century Community Learning Centers (CCLC), U.S. Department of Education 2019 and 2020.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Ethical review and approval were waived for this study due to it being a secondary de-identified data analysis.

Informed Consent Statement

The data were collected by a non-profit organization that had a contract with each of the schools to launch after-school programs. Data were collected by the non-profit organization. Analyses were conducted by the authors based on the secondary data provided by the non-profit organization. Consent and human subject issues were addressed by the non-profit organization and the school administrators, including parental consent, voluntary participation, and confidentiality agreement. The authors only analyzed the secondary data for the study.

Data Availability Statement

Data are not available to the public.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Table 1. Demographic characteristics of sample.
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of sample.
Fall 2019
n (%)		Spring 2020
n (%)
Grade Level
3rd or 4th grade
5th or 6th grade
128 (40.4)
189 (59.6)
34 (55.7)
27 (44.3)
Hispanic
Hispanic or Latino
Non-Hispanic or Latino
No response
163 (51.4)
131 (41.3)
23 (7.3)
21 (34.4)
39 (63.9)
1 (1.6)
Gender
Male
Female
Other
No response
180 (56.8)
130 (41.0)
4 (1.3)
3 (0.9)
33 (54.1)
27 (44.2)
0
1 (1.6)
Total31761
Table 2. A logistic regression analysis of outcomes of afterschool programs.
Table 2. A logistic regression analysis of outcomes of afterschool programs.
OutcomesVariablesBSESignificanceOdds RatioR2
Family InvolvementPre-post periods1.2740.5990.0333.5760.176
(χ2 = 36.361; p < 0.000)Grade levels−0.2940.1210.0150.745
FriendsPre-post periods−0.0720.4730.8790.9300.098
(χ2 = 19.982; p < 0.000)Grade levels−0.3540.1150.0020.702
SafetyPre-post periods19.3165383.1750.9970.24480.179
(χ2 = 30.534; p < 0.000)Grade levels−2.530.1420.0750.776
Academic GradesPre-post periods0.5640.4810.2411.7580.119
(χ2 = 24.183; p < 0.001)Grade levels−0.2710.1160.0190.762
Afterschool programPre-post periods0.5990.5182481.8200.240
(χ2 = 50.431; p < 0.001)Grade levels−0.4900.130<0.0010.613
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Leung, P.; Olson, L. Impact of COVID-19 on Afterschool Programming Outcomes: Lasting Implications for Underserved Early Adolescents. Adolescents 2025, 5, 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5010007

AMA Style

Leung P, Olson L. Impact of COVID-19 on Afterschool Programming Outcomes: Lasting Implications for Underserved Early Adolescents. Adolescents. 2025; 5(1):7. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5010007

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Leung, Patrick, and Lindamarie Olson. 2025. "Impact of COVID-19 on Afterschool Programming Outcomes: Lasting Implications for Underserved Early Adolescents" Adolescents 5, no. 1: 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5010007

APA Style

Leung, P., & Olson, L. (2025). Impact of COVID-19 on Afterschool Programming Outcomes: Lasting Implications for Underserved Early Adolescents. Adolescents, 5(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5010007

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