From Bones to Identification: Addressing the Current Gaps and Challenges in Ecuadorian Forensic Anthropology

Abstract

Forensic anthropology, a specialized branch of biological anthropology, plays a crucial role in the identification of human remains, particularly when conventional methods such as fingerprinting are not applicable. In Ecuador, its relevance has increased in response to challenges such as intentional deaths, forced disappearances, violence, mass fatalities, and migration-related deaths. Despite its growing importance, the field faces significant limitations, including restricted access to advanced technologies, limited training opportunities for local forensic anthropologists, and insufficient resources for research and the application of advanced methodologies for victim identification. This article examines the development and current state of forensic anthropology in Ecuador, emphasizing the urgent need for population-specific standards, the establishment of a national osteological collection, and stronger institutional support. It also highlights the contributions of bioarchaeological research and its potential to enhance forensic practices. By analyzing the challenges of identifying skeletonized human remains and other instances of human rights violations, the study underscores the necessity of advancing forensic anthropology in the country. The article further discusses how interdisciplinary efforts have contributed to forensic knowledge in Ecuador and concludes by emphasizing the importance of ethical guidelines, technological integration, and improved infrastructure to strengthen forensic anthropology as both a scientific discipline and a humanitarian tool.

1. Introduction

Forensic anthropology is a specialized branch of biological anthropology that applies anatomical, biological, and social anthropological knowledge to the analysis of human remains within medico-legal contexts. Although there is no single, universally accepted definition, the field broadly focuses on the study of the human body and its remains for legal purposes [1].

Traditionally, forensic anthropologists have played a vital role in identifying deceased individuals, particularly when remains are highly decomposed, skeletonized, dismembered, or otherwise unrecognizable [2,3]. To achieve this, they use both metric and non-metric methods to construct a biological profile that includes sex estimation, age at death, ancestry, and living stature [4,5]. In addition, forensic anthropologists document distinctive skeletal features such as antemortem trauma (e.g., healed fractures), anatomical variations, congenital anomalies, pathological conditions, surgical interventions, dental work and modifications, as well as perimortem and postmortem trauma and recognition of any other features that may assist identification and detection of foul play [6,7]. These observations not only help narrow the range of possible identities and increase identification accuracy but also contribute to understanding the cause and circumstances of death [8,9]. Although human identification remains central, forensic anthropology also extends to the recovery of remains, postmortem changes and environmental activity affecting the remains, and the analysis of skeletal trauma. These activities often involve close collaboration with related disciplines such as archeology, pathology, odontology, entomology, botany, taphonomy, and geology [10,11,12].

Ecuador is a country in northwestern South America. It is located on the Equator and borders Colombia to the north, Peru to the south and east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It has four regions: the Coast, the Highlands (Sierra), the Amazon, and the Insular region (the Galapagos Islands). With a population exceeding 18 million, Ecuador is approaching the end of a demographic transition marked by rising life expectancy, declining fertility, and an aging population [13]. In recent years, Ecuador has experienced a dramatic escalation of violence, with homicide rates among the highest in Latin America [14,15]. This surge has been largely driven by organized crime, the expansion of drug-trafficking networks, and a series of violent prison riots and conflicts among criminal groups [16,17,18]. These circumstances frequently result in homicides and, in several cases, the recovery of dismembered, skeletonized, or severely decomposed human remains. In such cases, the expertise of forensic anthropologists is essential for proper identification and the reconstruction of events leading to death—key steps in delivering justice to victims and providing closure to their families [19,20,21].

Beyond criminal violence, Ecuador’s geographical and environmental conditions render it highly vulnerable to natural disasters such as earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, and floods [22,23,24,25,26]. Since the early 17th century, at least 90 significant earthquakes and 60 volcanic processes have been recorded, reshaping the country’s settlement and territorial distribution [23]. One of the most devastating recent events was the April 2016 magnitude 7.8 earthquake, which caused widespread destruction and hundreds of deaths, leaving many victims unidentifiable due to the condition of their remains [27]. In such contexts, forensic pathologists and forensic anthropologists have played a crucial role in Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) by managing commingled remains, establishing biological profiles (sex, age, stature, ancestry), and facilitating dignified identification and burial practices [28,29].

However, Ecuador’s institutional weaknesses, political instability, limited resources, and shortage of specialized training programs in forensic sciences have placed additional pressure on the country’s medico-legal system. The growing number of unidentified bodies and the limited forensic infrastructure have hindered the effective handling of both complex cases, and the increasing volume of human remains. Many unidentified or unclaimed individuals have overwhelmed morgues nationwide, creating a serious humanitarian and institutional crisis.

Although the establishment of forensic anthropology expertise in Ecuador has significantly strengthened national forensic capacity, promoted human rights, and improved the reliability of medico-legal investigations, several limitations still impede its full consolidation as a scientific discipline.

Globally, advances in genetics, imaging, and chemical analysis have transformed forensic anthropology. Yet in Ecuador, the application of these technologies remains constrained by financial limitations, lack of infrastructure, scarcity of advanced equipment, and insufficiently trained specialists. Institutional barriers and the absence of national postgraduate programs in forensic anthropology further restrict progress. This discipline now stands at a critical juncture—where technological integration, interdisciplinary collaboration, and ethical awareness are essential for its continued growth and for its consolidation within the medico-legal system.

This perspective article aims to critically assess the role of forensic anthropology within Ecuador’s justice system, highlighting existing limitations and proposing evidence-based strategies to enhance national research capacity and promote sustained scientific development in the field.

2. Forensic Anthropology in Ecuador as a Scientific Discipline: Historical Background and Development

Forensic anthropology primarily focuses on the identification and analysis of contemporary human remains, whereas related disciplines such as biological anthropology, bioarchaeology, and paleopathology apply similar techniques to investigate past populations through skeletal evidence. In these fields, the aim is not individual identification but the examination of skeletal remains to explore patterns of biological and pathological profiles, such as trauma and disease during the life course, post-mortem changes, and, when possible, the cause of death, providing insight into the lifestyles and behaviors of ancient communities [30,31].

In Ecuador, scientific research specifically dedicated to forensic anthropology is practically non-existing [32]. Most available literature and academic work originate from related fields such as biological anthropology, bioarchaeology, and paleopathology. Publications addressing the origins and development of forensic anthropology in the country are virtually nonexistent, and the few existing studies are primarily connected to the disciplines mentioned above. The earliest bioanthropological research dates back to Saville’s 1910 work on Ecuadorian populations [33]. Systematic anthropological research in Ecuador began during the 1960s and 1970s through archeological projects led by Betty Meggers, which laid the foundation for subsequent skeletal analyses and interpretations [34,35]. During the 1970s, scientific activity in the field increased notably, as researchers such as Juan Munizaga and Douglas Ubelaker conducted pioneering studies in bioarchaeology and paleopathology, examining skeletal variation, diseases experienced during life, diet, cranial deformations, and occupational stress markers in Ecuadorian populations (e.g., [36,37]). Their work integrated Ecuadorian paleopathology into the broader global bioanthropological record [38]. Over almost the last five decades, subsequent publications have continued to expand knowledge of Ecuador’s ancient populations (e.g., [39,40,41,42,43,44,45]).

Nevertheless, major geographic and methodological gaps persist in the fields of bioarchaeology and paleopathology, as most studies have focused on the coastal region, and there remains a lack of population-specific standards and analytical methodologies for both archeological and contemporary Ecuadorian skeletal remains [46].

A recent review of bioarchaeological and paleopathological research in Ecuador indicates a resurgence of scientific activity between 2020 and 2024, with ten publications accounting for approximately 27.03% of the total scholarly output [46]. Most of these studies were conducted and funded by international institutions within the local collaboration. This trend highlights the growing use of advanced analytical technologies, the strengthening of interdisciplinary research networks, and increasing international interest in understanding the health and disease patterns of ancient Ecuadorian populations.

To the best of my knowledge, only three published studies on forensic anthropology from Ecuador (case descriptions) are currently available in the scientific literature. The first involved the skeletal remains of 14 victims [47] and 70 females (aged 12–25) murdered by a serial killer in the country’s two largest cities, Quito and Guayaquil, which were major concerns for the local community. Classic photographic superimposition, together with available dental records, played a key role in identifying these cases, as described by Işcan and Olivera [48].

Much later, Delabarde and Ludes reported a case documenting the recovery and analysis of disarticulated human remains from the Amazon region exhibiting sharp-force trauma [49]. Using bone reassembly, biological profiling, and experimental cut-mark analysis, they concluded that dismemberment occurred shortly after death and successfully reconstructed the sequence of events [49]. These cases illustrate the potential of forensic anthropology in Ecuador and underscore the urgent need for continued research, methodological development, and institutional support to establish the field as a consolidated scientific discipline.

3. Interdisciplinary Forensic Research in the Country Perspectives and Forensic Collaboration

Unlike forensic anthropology, other forensic disciplines in the country have begun to yield scientific publications, as seen in the field of forensic entomology. For example, a study documented for the first time the fly species collected from human cadavers in southern Ecuador, identifying them through morphological and molecular techniques [50]. This research established a baseline for the development of forensic entomology in the country. Despite this progress, challenges persist in evidence management and in integrating entomological data into legal processes, highlighting the need for structured training programs and institutional protocols that ensure the correct collection and interpretation of entomological evidence [51].

In 2023, Ecuador approved new forensic standardization instruments, including the Protocolo integral para la gestión de cadáveres y restos humanos de interés forense (Comprehensive protocol for the management of cadavers and human remains of forensic interest), which defines multidisciplinary procedures for the treatment of cadavers [52]. However, there is still a need for specific regulations governing forensic entomology and other related disciplines, such as forensic anthropology and forensic pathology, that clearly outline procedures, designate authorized personnel, and standardize evidence handling [53]. Proper evidence management remains a challenge at many crime scenes, where contamination or poor coordination often compromises investigations [54,55], particularly in the country, where specialized personnel are not called to process the crime scenes or to recover human remains.

On the other hand, regarding the purpose of identification, forensic odontology faces major limitations due to the absence of a national database containing antemortem dental and radiographic records [56,57]. Specialists are often required to manually locate such records through dental clinics or family members—a process hindered by incomplete documentation and the lack of centralized digital archives. Therefore, a comprehensive regulatory framework and robust digital infrastructure are urgently needed to enhance the efficiency of identification procedures, which also directly impacts the potential for forensic and academic research in this field.

4. Violence, Mortality, and Forensic Challenges in Ecuador

Ecuador has experienced a sharp increase in violent deaths over the past several years, reflecting complex dynamics influenced by security policies, government interventions, and organized crime. The number of intentional homicides increased by 528.10% compared to the first half of 2019. By the end of 2023, the country was projected to surpass 7000 violent deaths, reaching a homicide rate of over 35 per 100,000 inhabitants [58,59]. Between 1 January and 30 June 2024, Ecuador recorded a total of 3036 homicides, representing a decrease of 585 cases compared to the same period in 2023. This marks the first decline in the upward trend observed since 2019, amounting to a 16.16% reduction compared to 2023 [58,59,60,61]. However, this figure remains significantly higher than in 2022, when 2128 homicides were recorded during the same period. Violence against minors also increased dramatically, with 770 child victims reported in 2023 [62]. In the first half of 2025, Ecuador registered 4619 intentional homicides, representing a 47% increase compared to the same period in 2024 [63]. This semi-annual homicide figure is the highest recorded in Ecuador’s recent history, highlighting the persistent challenges the country faces in addressing violent deaths and ensuring public safety.

Prison riots have been a major contributor to fatalities in the country. Approximately 0.169% of the prison population—around 30,804 individuals—has been affected by these incidents, which have occasionally escalated into large-scale massacres [18]. In 2021, 331 violent deaths occurred in prisons, with 76.44% concentrated at the Guayas prison complex [18]. Factors contributing to prison violence include insufficient control and oversight, gang conflicts over dominance within prison pavilions, shortages of security personnel, inadequate training and equipment, and outdated security protocols [64,65]. Subsequent years saw continued fatalities, with approximately 144 deaths in 2022 and an additional 26 by 30 June 2023 [18,66].

The rise in violent deaths has placed unprecedented pressure on forensic facilities. One notable example occurred in June 2024, when news broke across the media that in Guayaquil, more than 200 unidentified bodies were being stored in damaged containers. The burial of these individuals, who had apparently died violently, took place ten days after the National Service of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences decided to open a container filled with bodies, body parts, and skeletal remains—after they had been without refrigeration for more than 20 days under the high temperatures that Guayaquil experienced during that period—in order to transfer them to another container that had just been repaired. Forensic doctors warned of a potential public health hazard due to the situation in the city’s morgue.

Aside from press reports, there are no official channels confirming data on these events, although evidence is widely available across the internet. This underscores the urgent need for explicit, verified information to be released through official channels in Ecuador, ensuring transparency and public access to accurate data. It also highlights another significant issue within official statistics and reports: the absence of figures concerning unidentified victims or failed identification processes. Some of these victims must be buried, in certain cases in common mass graves, as occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, and in some instances involving victims of the 2016 earthquake. These circumstances, which are caused by factors such as the overcapacity of morgue storage facilities and, most critically, electrical or equipment failures that accelerate decomposition, urgently call for the involvement of forensic anthropologists. These experts can assist not only in identifying human remains but also in maceration and skeletonization processes, as well as in the collection of tissue and personal belongings of the individuals, so that, at some point, these remains can be exhumed and potentially identified. These overlapping crises emphasize the pressing need for an integrated policy approach that combines public security, disaster management, and public health strategies to effectively address mortality and forensic challenges in Ecuador.

5. What Role Can an Identified Human Skeletal Collection Play in Advancing Forensic Anthropology Research in Ecuador?

One potential limitation of research in forensic anthropology may be the lack of an identified osteological collection, which is essential for developing methodologies in this scientific discipline. Identified osteological collections, composed of skeletal remains of individuals with known biographical data, are essential for biological and forensic anthropology [67]. Often called reference or documented collections, they enable the development and testing of methodologies for estimating age and sex, and some have facilitated the diagnosis of specific pathologies from skeletal lesions [68]. These methods can then be applied to archeological and forensic remains, supporting interpretations of past societies or the resolution of judicial cases. While early collections focused primarily on recording skeletal anomalies and comparing populations across regions, modern collections aim to represent population variability and make substantial contributions to biological anthropology [69].

Despite their value for testing methodological reliability and accuracy, significant ethical challenges remain regarding the use and acquisition of identified human skeletal collections, highlighting the need for both emerging and long-standing concerns to be incorporated into codes of ethics and best-practice guidelines [70]. In Ecuador, developing country-specific standards for age and sex estimation requires the establishment of an identified osteological collection, which would provide a foundation for studying skeletal variation and comparative anatomy in both biological and forensic contexts [69]. Similar collections in Brazil, Chile, Colombia, and Argentina already serve as crucial resources for developing and validating methods for estimating biological profiles of unidentified individuals [71] and creating such a collection in Ecuador would represent a major milestone for national research, education, and professional training [46].

6. Future Horizons and Recommendations for the Consolidation of Forensic Anthropology as an Active Science

To consolidate the development of research in forensic anthropology in Ecuador, it is essential to recognize the value that this discipline, alongside related fields such as biological anthropology, brings to forensic sciences. In Ecuador, these disciplines are at a stage of consolidation with significant potential, yet they still face major structural, methodological, and ethical challenges. Given their growing importance for understanding the biological, social, and cultural evolution of past societies, it is crucial to establish strategic objectives and recommendations that strengthen their presence nationally and internationally while fostering local scientific interest.

A comprehensive approach to forensic anthropology in Ecuador should extend beyond the isolated analysis of human remains. Disciplines such as bioarchaeology, paleopathology, and biological anthropology (as discussed in Section 2 of this paper) offer essential methodological frameworks, comparative datasets, and interpretive tools that enhance forensic casework. Incorporating these fields into training programs, research methodologies, and routine forensic practice fosters a more holistic understanding of biological variation, pathological conditions, and historical context. By adopting such an interdisciplinary perspective, forensic anthropology in Ecuador can achieve greater methodological rigor, more accurate case interpretations, and a broader impact at both national and international levels.

One of the most pressing challenges is the limited availability of specialized training in universities. Most professionals in these areas of forensic science have acquired their expertise abroad or through self-directed study. This situation hampers the formation of consolidated interdisciplinary teams and threatens the continuity of long-term research projects. Scientific infrastructure also presents evident deficiencies. The lack of specialized laboratories and restricted access to key technologies, such as DNA analysis and biobanks, significantly limits the capacity for in-depth studies. Although some researchers have accessed these resources, such efforts remain exceptional and difficult to replicate without a robust national technical framework. Establishing national reference centers equipped with modern technology and consolidating international partnerships to temporarily compensate for current technological limitations is therefore essential.

Given these limitations, the country’s forensic science institute could also develop a database similar to the Forensic Anthropology Database for Assessing Methods Accuracy (FADAMA). Such a repository would provide a community-accessible tool allowing forensic anthropologists to pose questions, evaluate, and respond to inquiries regarding casework and method performance on a community-wide basis [72]. FADAMA is the first organized free online platform for sharing methods applicable to recognized casework and casework outcomes. However, it is important to note that these data sources are limited in their ability to reflect the overall effectiveness of forensic anthropology casework, due to their inherent exclusion of a significant portion of cases—unidentified instances [73]. This could be implemented in a relatively simple manner, for example, by forensic anthropologists pooling their data into a shared spreadsheet, while ensuring compliance with ethical and privacy regulations. Nevertheless, formal implementation would require legal oversight to properly plan the initiative. Still, it is something that the authorities and the country’s forensic science institute could consider for the future.

Another obstacle to strengthening the field is the limited international visibility of research conducted in Ecuador. Much of the work remains in graduate theses or is published in local journals, often in Spanish, which restricts its dissemination. Promoting publication in English, in indexed international journals, as well as active participation in global academic networks, would integrate Ecuadorian knowledge into broader discussions on the application of diverse methods in complex forensic anthropology cases and protocols for emerging situations such as natural disasters. This could serve as a reference for Latin America, a region where Ecuador has significant potential.

Finally, any consolidation process must include a critical reflection on the ethical and social dimensions of research with human remains. Forensic anthropology cannot be disconnected from contemporary cultural contexts, particularly when working with indigenous communities. It is essential to value collective memory, establish dialog with the communities involved, and ensure their participation in interpreting findings.

Ethical practice in biological or forensic anthropology respects heritage regulations, incorporates local knowledge, and recognizes communities as legitimate actors in the research process. Strengthening forensic anthropology in Ecuador requires a joint effort between universities, the state, researchers, and communities. Implementing postgraduate programs, investing in scientific infrastructure, reinforcing collaborative networks, organizing osteological collections, and promoting inclusive ethics are fundamental actions to ensure that forensic anthropology and related disciplines contribute not only to scientific knowledge but also to humanitarian goals, such as returning identified remains to families and helping them close difficult chapters in their lives.

7. Conclusions and Final Considerations

Forensic anthropology in Ecuador has grown into a discipline of increasing legal, scientific, and humanitarian significance. Although still developing as a scientific field, it plays a crucial role in identifying human remains and reconstructing postmortem events, often under challenging social, ethical and institutional conditions.

Persistent limitations continue to hinder its full potential. Chronic underfunding, limited access to advanced technologies, and a shortage of adequately trained professionals reduce the efficiency and accuracy of forensic investigations. The absence of standardized national databases and population-specific reference materials further constrains identification processes. At the same time, rising rates of violence, recurrent natural disasters, and public health crises have intensified the demand for forensic services, placing a heavy burden on existing infrastructure and forensic experts and technicians.

Strengthening forensic anthropology in Ecuador requires coordinated national efforts. Priority measures include the establishment of osteological collections, the development of Ecuadorian-specific identification standards, the digitization of forensic data, and the expansion of specialized training programs. Fostering collaboration among forensic pathology, entomology, genetics and odontology and will facilitate more integrated, multidisciplinary investigations. Ethical principles and human rights considerations must underpin all advancements, ensuring that forensic work serves both the justice system and humanitarian objectives, upholding dignity and truth for victims and their families.

Ecuador stands at a decisive moment in its forensic development. Through sustained investment, especially in infrastructure and personnel, educational initiatives, and policy reform, the country has the opportunity to transform its forensic sciences into effective instruments of justice, public security, and human rights protection.