Effects of Implementing the Digital Storytelling Strategy on Improving the Use of Various Forms of the Passive Voice in Undergraduate EFL Students’ Oral Skills at the University Level

Abstract

This pilot study explores the effectiveness of digital storytelling in improving the oral use of the passive voice among Lebanese undergraduate EFL students. Conducted during the 2021/2022 spring semester amidst Lebanon’s ongoing economic and social crises, the study involved an experimental group using a digital storytelling strategy and a control group receiving traditional instruction. The research employed a quantitative approach, utilizing a pretest and a posttest to assess grammatical accuracy and fluency, and qualitative interviews to gauge student perceptions. The findings indicate that digital storytelling significantly enhances students’ ability to use the passive voice in oral communication, fostering greater engagement and a deeper understanding of grammatical structures. Despite the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic and Lebanon’s economic difficulties, students in the experimental group demonstrated marked improvement over those in the control group. The study’s limitations include its small sample size and the specific context of a private Lebanese university, which may limit generalizability. However, the results offer promising insights into the benefits of digital storytelling as a pedagogical tool, suggesting its potential for broader application in EFL education. This research contributes to the growing body of literature on technology-enhanced language learning and underscores the need for further exploration in diverse educational settings.

1. Introduction

With the rise of English as the world’s “lingua franca” [1], it has become the dominant language for both oral and written communication in the digital age [2]. This shift has led to English being widely adopted as the Medium of Instruction (EMI) across secondary and tertiary institutions globally [3]. The increasing globalization of higher education, coupled with rising student mobility [4], necessitates that students develop robust oral communication skills. These skills are not only essential for academic success but are also highly sought after in the global job market [5]. However, despite the growing importance of these skills, there remains a significant gap between the expectations of employers and the actual oral competence of graduates [6].

Lebanon presents a unique case study in this regard, as it is a pluralistic and multilingual society where Arabic is the native language for the majority, but English and French are also widely used, particularly in educational settings. Over the past decade, English has steadily overtaken French and Arabic as the primary language of instruction in many Lebanese schools and universities [7]. This shift reflects broader global trends but also underscores the challenges that come with implementing EMI in a context where students’ first language (L1) is not English.

Despite extensive exposure to English—often beginning in kindergarten—Lebanese students frequently struggle to meet proficiency standards, particularly in oral communication [8]. This issue is particularly pronounced in the use of complex grammatical structures such as the passive voice. Traditional teacher-centered methods, which prioritize literacy over oracy, have been identified as a major contributing factor to this problem [9,10]. These methods typically emphasize rote learning and the mastery of grammatical rules without providing sufficient opportunities for students to practice these skills in real-life communication contexts. As a result, students may have a theoretical understanding of grammar but struggle to apply it effectively in spoken English.

The passive voice poses significant challenges for Arab EFL learners. The structure and usage of the passive voice differ markedly between Arabic and English, making it difficult for learners to apply it accurately in oral communication [11]. In Arabic, passivization is less common and involves morphological changes that do not have direct equivalents in English. This difference often leads to confusion and errors when Arab learners attempt to construct passive sentences in English. For instance, Arabic typically does not require the explicit mention of an agent in passive constructions, whereas English does, which can lead to incomplete or awkward sentences in the target language. These challenges are compounded by the fact that many traditional grammar instruction methods in Lebanon fail to adequately address these difficulties. Students may learn the rules for forming passive sentences but lack the practice and feedback necessary to use them fluently in speech [10].

Given these challenges, there is a clear need for innovative pedagogical approaches that go beyond traditional methods and address the specific needs of Arab EFL learners. One such approach is digital storytelling, a strategy that combines digital media with narrative to create engaging and interactive learning experiences. Digital storytelling has been shown to enhance various aspects of language learning, including grammar and speaking skills [12,13]. By integrating technology with storytelling, this method provides learners with opportunities to practice language in a meaningful context, which can lead to improved retention and application of grammatical structures.

While there is a growing body of research supporting the use of storytelling in language education, much of this research has focused on traditional storytelling methods or younger learners. There is a notable lack of studies examining the impact of digital storytelling on the oral production of specific grammatical features, such as the passive voice, among adult EFL learners [14]. Furthermore, most studies on digital storytelling have been conducted in Western contexts, with little attention given to its use in higher education settings in the Arab world, including Lebanon [15]. This gap in the literature is significant because it limits our understanding of how digital storytelling can be used to address the unique challenges faced by Arab EFL learners, particularly in relation to complex grammatical structures like the passive voice.

In response to this gap, this present pilot study seeks to explore the effectiveness of digital storytelling as a tool for improving the oral production of passive voice constructions among Lebanese undergraduate EFL students. This study is guided by two primary research questions: to what extent does the digital storytelling strategy help Lebanese students master the oral production of passive English constructions, and what are the students’ perceptions of this method?

To answer these questions, this study employs a quantitative approach to provide a comprehensive understanding of the effects of digital storytelling on students’ oral proficiency. The quantitative component involves pre- and posttests to measure the students’ ability to use the passive voice before and after the intervention.

The study hypothesizes that the digital storytelling strategy will significantly improve students’ ability to use the passive voice in oral communication. This hypothesis is grounded in the literature, which suggests that integrating narrative elements into language instruction can enhance learners’ engagement and motivation, leading to better learning outcomes [12,16]. Additionally, it is expected that students will have a positive perception of the integration of digital storytelling into their grammar instruction, as it provides a more interactive and learner-centered approach compared to traditional methods.

This research is particularly timely and relevant given the ongoing challenges faced by the Lebanese education system, which has been further exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. The shift to online learning during the pandemic has highlighted the need for digital literacy and the ability to use technology effectively in education. Digital storytelling, with its emphasis on combining technology with creative expression, offers a potential solution to some of these challenges by providing a flexible and engaging way for students to practice language skills in an online environment.

Furthermore, the findings of this study have the potential to inform curriculum development and teaching practices in Lebanon and other similar contexts. By demonstrating the effectiveness of digital storytelling in improving the oral production of the passive voice, this research could encourage educators to adopt more innovative and student-centered approaches to grammar instruction. This could lead to improved language proficiency among Lebanese students, better preparing them for the demands of the global job market and enhancing their overall academic and professional success.

In conclusion, this study seeks to contribute to the growing body of literature on digital storytelling in language education by addressing a specific gap in the research related to the oral production of passive voice constructions among adult EFL learners. By focusing on a context that has been largely overlooked in previous studies, this research aims to provide new insights into the potential benefits of digital storytelling for Arab learners and to offer practical recommendations for educators seeking to enhance their students’ grammatical accuracy and oral proficiency.

2. Literature Review

Grammatical competence plays a significant role in second-language communication since it is responsible for both producing and correcting language. Nassaji and Fotos [17] even assert that “without grammar, language does not exist”. So, mastering this grammatical competence will enable learners to not only use the language accurately and effectively in order to deliver their ideas or messages but also to comprehend the message itself [18]. This is due to the fact that grammar, in accordance with Ellis [19], provides the structural framework for communication, enabling speakers to convey meaning and express their ideas effectively. In line with this, Larsen-Freeman [20] contends that grammar is a crucial communication tool that enables speakers to create and comprehend meaningful utterances. Additionally, studies have shown that a focus on grammar can improve speaking proficiency. For example, Ellis [19] and Muziatun, Malabar, and Mustapa [21] came to a consensus that one cannot become a fluent user of a foreign language without a good command of grammar. Even though accuracy and fluency are currently seen as two essential elements of language acquisition, accuracy is still considered one of the key characteristics of speaking performance [22]. Grammar serves as a model of the linguistic skills used by native speakers of a language to communicate fluently [23]. Furthermore, Richards & Renandya, (2002) (in [24], page 146) confirm that grammatical competence enables speakers to employ and comprehend English language structures accurately and immediately, which promotes their fluency. They also claim that accuracy is the basis of fluency, while fluency is a further improvement in a person’s linguistic competence and a better demonstration of his/her communicative competence. This indicates that, when teaching English in a classroom setting, teachers should maintain a balance between accuracy and fluency. Ellis et al. [25] suggest that the teaching of linguistic form—grammatical rules in particular—continues to play a major role in language pedagogy, and integrating grammar teaching into speaking practice can result in more fluent and effective communication [26].

Regarding which grammar to teach, Lakouha [27] states that it is a complex question to answer, as choosing which grammar to teach depends on many factors including students’ specific needs, the purpose of grammar teaching, and students’ level and abilities. Lakouha [27] stresses that the passive voice, a grammatical structure that is frequently used in English, is crucial for efficient communication in both academic and professional settings. According to Ferreira [28], the passive voice is a type of transitivity that emphasizes the object or recipient of an action rather than the subject or doer. This emphasis can be useful in situations when the speaker wants to convey a more formal or objective tone or when the object is more significant than the subject. Moreover, the use of the passive voice enables presenters to achieve cohesion and coherence in oral presentations, as it allows speakers to link ideas and information together in a more structured and logical manner [29]. Moreover, Unver’s [29] investigation on how the passive voice may improve oral communication skills in EFL undergraduate students revealed that it is essential for learners to be fully aware of the meaning, use, and form of the passive voice to better communicate their thoughts more effectively and connect ideas and information in an organized and logical way. Therefore, learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) can improve their oral presentation skills and communicate more effectively in academic and professional contexts by having a deeper awareness of the different types of passive voice and their proper usage.

With respect to the question “how to teach grammar”, recent research in this field confirms that “Grammar can be taught in many ways—there is no ‘best’ way that suits all grammar points” [30]. In addition to this, Lakouha [27] also states that it is utopic to believe that one grammar teaching method can be perfect and eradicate all errors, for proficiency in ESL or any foreign language is very hard to achieve. In the same vein, Minaflinou [31] in her study entitled “Exploring the Teaching of Communicative Grammar in EFL Classes in Benin to Promote Language Use in CBA Context”, points out that grammar classes can be made fun and catchy if teachers are aware that rules and meaning are both complementary key components which develop effective language practice. In other words, Minaflinou [31] wants to stress the point that both communicative language teaching and traditional grammar teaching are not mutually exclusive, but rather represent two sides of the same coin. Nowadays, there is a call for making a balance between form and meaning. Spada & Tomita [16] also reach a conclusion from the findings of their study that meaning-based instruction which includes attention to form is more efficacious than instruction that focuses exclusively on the form (like the traditional audio-lingual method) or instruction which focuses exclusively on meaning (like the functional communicative approach). Consequently, the new ELT/ESL trends are now reshaping or revisiting the CLT approach to grammar teaching by recommending the use of a content-based method that combines both meaning and explicit form instruction.

Many researchers and instructors acknowledge the benefits of digital stories on L2 development at the linguistic level. Regarding the linguistic advantages, Oskoz and Elola [32] note that when learners move from argumentative or expository essays to the digital story script, they substitute their use of lexical connectors with pauses, repetition, and voice inflections as transition devices, pay more attention to grammatical rules and other linguistic issues, and gain a good understanding of grammatical aspects. For example, research on the use of digital storytelling to teach the passive voice to EFL undergraduate students [33] discovered that it was a successful strategy for enhancing EFL learners’ production of the passive voice and their correct use of it in oral communication [34].

As a result, a number of studies have demonstrated the potential of digital storytelling as a technique for improving EFL learners’ passive voice use in their oral skills. Through the process of retelling and sharing digital stories, learners may practice using the passive voice in context and develop their listening and speaking skills [35]. Additionally, the multimodal nature of retelling digital storytelling can provide each student with a more engaged, personalized, and interesting learning experience [7], aiding their deeper comprehension of the grammatical principles regulating the passive voice [35]. Overall, the various studies in this literature review suggest that retelling digital storytelling holds promise as an effective strategy for advancing EFL students’ use of passive voice and improving learners’ communicative ability.

3. Materials and Methods

This pilot study specifically adopted the comparison pretest and posttest quasi-experimental design which involved 23 TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language) or CHED (Early Childhood Education) students from two Modern English Grammar (ENG 220) classes.

3.1. Participants

The sample was selected randomly using a purposive sampling technique from ENGL 220 (Advanced English Grammar). The researcher specifically chose students from this course because its themes and learning objectives aligned with the research aims. ENGL 220 is a core requirement for the participants and builds on skills from prerequisite courses, mainly ENGL 151 (Advanced Writing Skills) and ENGL 201 (Composition and Research Skills), which students must complete before enrolling. The course focuses on using grammar to communicate. Its primary aim is to help students use grammatical structures accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately in both speaking and writing. Since this study addresses oral communication, the expected competencies include understanding and taking notes on lectures, participating in discussions, communicating effectively both orally and in writing, making oral presentations, conducting library research, reading sources related to their fields, and retelling stories and presenting them orally.

The participants were enrolled online in an advanced ESL/EFL grammar class (ENGL 220) at a Lebanese private university. They were between 18 and 21 years old, with Arabic as their first language (L1). The students were either majoring in TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language) or CHED (Early Childhood Education). Most had studied EFL since kindergarten, for approximately 17 years, as required by the Lebanese curriculum.

Both groups, who were selected and assigned to the experimental group (EG) and a control group (CG) randomly, were similar in terms of their demographic characteristics, their completion of prerequisite courses before enrolling in this Modern English Grammar course, their on-track-to-B1 speaking level on the CEFR scale, the expertise of the teacher who taught this course, the course syllabus which includes the to-be-achieved course objectives, the number of students in each classroom, the classroom facilities, the number of hours of tuition (a total of 12 h per month based on the number of instruction hours in the university system), and the learning schedule of the course.

Participants in the experimental group studied the passive voice using digital tools and platforms aligned with the course syllabus; on the other hand, the control group learned the passive voice through the course book and the teacher’s explanation and resources, which were also in alignment with the course syllabus and posted via the Google Classroom platform. Hence, the research design is outlined in

Table 1. Research Design.

Group	Before	Before	Treatment	After
Experimental Group	PISA Test	Pretest	Digital storytelling strategy Teacher’s explanations	Posttest
Control Group			The course book Teacher’s explanations

below as follows:

3.2. Instruments

To conduct the study and to analyze and discuss the results, a set of instruments were needed.

3.2.1. Instrument 1: PISA Benchmarking Test

To assess the participants’ language ability and ensure consistency, an English proficiency test, the Cambridge PISA benchmarking test, was administered before the experiment began. This PISA test is an adaptive online test where questions are selected from a test bank. This test assessed all the participants’ general English proficiency, with a focus on their speaking performance, indicating that their speaking level is on track to B1 on the CEFR scale, which suggests that the students may need more support in developing their speaking skills in order to bring their overall English language ability up to a higher level.

3.2.2. Instrument 2: Pretest/Posttest Models per Target Passive Units

The pretest and posttest for the Passive Unit were administered online to evaluate students’ understanding and use of the passive voice in their oral skills. Each pair included an exact sample of the questions that were similar in format, content, number of items, and structure. The researcher selected specific tasks from the Focus on Grammar resource pack for both the pretest and posttest. These tests aimed to assess the students’ ability to apply various forms of the passive voice, including structures like “be” + past participle, passive constructions with modals (e.g., will, should, must), and the passive causative (have/get + object + past participle).

The pretest and posttest were adapted to measure the students’ understanding and practical use of the passive voice in oral communication. These tests were similar in format, content, number of items, and structure, ensuring comparability and reliability. This similarity is crucial for accurately assessing students’ progress and providing meaningful recommendations for improving the EFL students’ oral skills.

In the first tasks of each pretest/posttest, students acted out a dialogue, completing conversations with the correct passive, passive modal, or passive causative verb forms. The conversational dialogue consisted of a question-answer format, where one party usually asked questions and the other party responded by sharing his/her experiences using the correct forms of the passive voice. This included using the form of “be” + past participle of the verb, passive with modals for the future, advisability, past ability, future possibility, and necessity with the corresponding negative and question forms, and passive causative verbs in the form “have” or “get” + object + past, as requested in the given question. The second task of each pretest/posttest involved students recording an edited version of a complaint letter in their own voice. Rubrics and checklists were provided to ensure that students’ recordings included all required components and were free of errors. In the study, students were required to use built-in rubrics in the pretest and posttest Google forms, with a total of 50 points available. The rubrics assessed both grammatical accuracy in using the passive voice and presentation skills, such as pronunciation, fluency, content organization, and clarity. Approximately 70% of the grade focused on grammatical features, while 30% was allocated to fluency, pronunciation, relevant content, clarity of voice, and duration. Additionally, students were encouraged to use editing checklists to ensure their oral responses were grammatically accurate and error-free, specifically for passive voice structures involving “be”, modals, and passive causatives. By using these activities, the researcher could evaluate the students’ understanding and use of the passive voice in different contexts, providing a comprehensive assessment of their progress over the 2021/2022 spring semester.

To ensure the study was rigorous, the pretest and posttest, along with the students’ results, were statistically analyzed. The objective was to determine whether the adapted tests were reliable and valid and to identify any significant differences in performance between the control and experimental groups.

The pretest model included 17 questions across two tasks, but 5 questions were eliminated based on the results of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). The eliminated questions were related to passive with modals, duration, fluency, and relevant content and organization.

The CFA was conducted on the remaining 12 questions (6 from each activity). The analysis showed that the standardized factor loadings ranged from 0.445 to 0.994 for the first activity and from 0.533 to 0.892 for the second activity. The model’s evaluation criteria, including CFI (0.896), TLI (0.871), and RMSEA (0.129), indicated an acceptable fit. The composite reliability (CR) for both activities was above the threshold (0.869 for the first activity and 0.895 for the second), confirming the reliability and convergent validity of the questions. The correlation between the two activities was 0.55, indicating that each activity could explain 30.25% of the variance in the other. As a result, the discriminant validity was also verified.

Since the pretest and posttest were similar in format, content, number of items, and learning objectives, the 5 questions eliminated from the pretest were also removed from the posttest. The remaining 12 questions in both activities were considered valid and reliable.

3.3. Treatment

The ENGL 220 Google Classroom was created and set up to communicate synchronously and asynchronously with the students effectively and efficiently on teaching and non-teaching days. In this way, EFL undergraduate students in both groups can stay on top of course communications, assignments, due dates, and course obligations. They read instructions, received and completed assigned work, viewed posts by the teacher, and even received feedback.

Figure 1 below outlines the lesson plan that the researcher followed in teaching the passive voice through a digital storytelling approach, which aimed to enhance the students’ understanding and application of the passive voice in their oral production. A breakdown of its components is discussed in the succeeding paragraphs of this section.

As shown in Figure 1 above, the PISA benchmarking test, an English proficiency test, was administered to assess the participants’ language ability and ensure that participants have the same language ability.

After administering the PISA speaking test and at the beginning of the passive unit, the adapted pretest was administered to both groups (the control and the experimental group) in order to determine their oral skill levels in using the passive voice, mainly “with the form “be” + past participle of the main verb, passive with modal auxiliaries or similar expressions, and passive causatives, as well as to ensure the groups’ equivalence. Later, after the implementation of the conventional approach of each unit in the control group and the implementation of the digital storytelling intervention in the experimental group, the posttest was sent to both groups.

For the experimental group, monthly in-class graded digital storytelling presentations (1–5 min) were delivered to each student to assess their competency in using some target grammatical features. A range of online digital stories about contemporary social and humanitarian issues, including conflict, racism, migration, and asylum, was sent to students in the experimental group via Google Classroom, where each student had to retell the assigned story using the required passive voice features. To retell the assigned stories using the target grammatical structures in their voice, the instructor provided the students with a list of tools.

Those who preferred to only record their voices used Vocaroo (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IqXDqmfv46M, accessed on 26 October 2024), a premier voice recorder, which is a quick and easy way for students to upload and share their audio recordings with the instructor online. In order to learn how to use Vocaroo, the students were provided with the following link to a tutorial about how to use Vocaroo. For students who were motivated to video their retelling, they used one of two free digital storytelling tools they were provided with: We Video (https://www.wevideo.com/, accessed on 26 October 2024), a free digital storytelling tool, or the Kine (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PdbNDJKyER4, accessed on 26 October 2024) master application, a computer-based tool that can be used in the production and creation of students’ authentic digital stories.

3.3.1. Treatment for the Experimental Group (EG)

For the experimental group, the instructor taught the course material using a digital storytelling strategy, which aligned with the content and sequence of each unit. The students were divided into groups of 3–4 members, each of which created a group motto. Within each group, students took on specific roles: a note-taker who kept clear and comprehensive notes, a summarizer/reteller who presented key ideas from the digital story to the group, a questioner who asked questions related to the story, a clarifier who answered these questions and resolved any confusion, and a predictor who anticipated what would happen next. These roles rotated regularly, allowing all students to experience each role. During each phase of the implementation of the digital storytelling technique, students discussed their understanding, shared viewpoints, and reflected on the story, all while fulfilling their specific roles.

Although there were no strict rules for beginning a digital storytelling session, the researcher usually started by describing the task and providing instructions, both verbally and via a slideshow, as follows:

-

Pre-watching the digital story:

Effective grammar teaching involves both deductive and inductive approaches [36]; however, even though simple grammar rules can be taught deductively, complex grammar items should be taught inductively to clearly demonstrate their usage in sentences [15]. Based on this, the researcher used a deductive approach for some lessons and an inductive approach for others. This strategy was applied in teaching the passive voice, with various resources helping students learn and practice its general principles.

During the preparation stage, which included a lead-in activity reviewing verb forms (infinitive, simple past, and past participle), students completed a chart with these forms based on the verbs from the upcoming story. The main aim was to help students review and practice these verb forms. The instructor also reviewed relevant terminology, such as the agent (the doer of the action) and the object (the receiver of the action).

-

Watching the digital story:

The first digital story presented was “Choosing a World Free from Female Genital Cutting: Aissata’s True Story”. Students were initially shown the title and key target words (e.g., hemorrhage, labia, and clitoris) along with related images. The names of the characters were labeled in each picture to help students speculate about the story. While looking at the keywords and images, students answered questions posed by the teacher, which they recorded in the story’s graphic organizer.

Sometimes, the researcher used a technique called “interrogate the story”, where students were shown the first sentence(s) of the story with visuals, followed by questions that guided them through the narrative. This technique helped engage students with the story.

The teacher played the digital story, pausing at intervals to ask comprehension questions. This allowed the questioner in each group to ask questions, the predictor to make predictions, the clarifier to provide explanations, and the reteller to share ideas and summarize the story. Since the focus was not on reading or comprehension questions, minimal time was allocated to this section. Example comprehension questions included the following:

• At what age was Aissata cut?
• Why were the girls cut in her culture?
• How was the female genital cut (FGC) done in the story?
• Who founded the education program to end FGC?
• Was FGC abandoned in Aissata’s community after joining the program, and why?

After ensuring students understood the text, the teacher moved to the awareness-raising stage. Awareness-raising activities can significantly improve the students’ understanding and use of passive voice structures [8]. Students then completed a table to analyze the form of passive voice verbs using sentences from the story.

In the “noticing the use” stage, students explored the usage of the passive voice. Following this, they engaged in the practice stage, starting with more controlled exercises and gradually moving to less controlled activities.

In the production stage, students were asked to use the target language authentically. The teacher posted a graded digital story activity, where students watched “Choosing a World Free from Female Genital Cutting: Aissata’s True Story” via https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mefciULAJQM (accessed on 26 October 2024) and then retold Aissata’s short story from her viewpoint in one to two minutes, using different passive forms. Students recorded their retellings and uploaded them as videos or audio files. These recordings were graded out of 20, with students advised to refer to a built-in rubric to ensure they included all the required components.

-

Post Watching the Digital Story:

At the end of the digital storytelling session, the teacher posted another story titled “Dana Story”, a first-person illustrated testimony about the difficulties that a refugee mother faced on her long difficult journey to Serbia, via Google Classroom. Before retelling their stories, students were advised to refer to the built-in rubric in the Google Form and the attached checklist, which outlined various criteria and corresponding point values for evaluating the students’ performance in using the passive voice in various forms (negative, affirmative, similar expressions, and causative verbs) and other aspects of language proficiency, to ensure their submissions met all the requirements. Students were given the option to modify two or three elements of the story (e.g., character, plot, ending) or retell it from a different character’s perspective. They could also mix and match elements from other stories. Students recorded their oral performances and uploaded their video or voice recording, which should be saved in their names (e.g., Sahar_Alameh V1 or R1) in the attached Google file. Students used Vocaroo, We Video, or Kine Master to record their retellings and share them via Google Classroom.

The students’ digital stories were coded for the required grammatical features. Transcripts were verified against the original recordings before being subjected to linguistic analysis, focusing on grammatical accuracy. The instructor with the support of the IELTS examiner manually marked features on transcripts and counted their frequency. Additionally, the examiners also rated the participants’ pronunciation, fluency, clarity of voice, and the relevancy of their story retelling to the content of the posted story.

3.3.2. Treatment for the Control Group

For the control group, the instructor delivered content-based lectures using technology such as computers, projectors, tape recorders, and presentation software as instructional aids. Students studied individually for paper-based homework and tests and occasionally participated in group discussions.

In the control group, the teacher followed the general teaching guidelines outlined in the book’s introduction. Each unit in the students’ book followed the following four-step approach:

Step 1. Grammar in Context: Each unit begins with a reading selection designed to engage students and introduce the target grammar in a natural context. The readings include excerpts from newspapers, magazines, websites, newsletters, advertisements, and conversations. All texts are recorded, allowing teachers to play the audio while students follow along. “Before You Read” activities spark interest and elicit prior knowledge, while “After You Read” activities build vocabulary and comprehension.

Step 2. Grammar Presentation: this section presents grammar rules in charts, with rules on the left side and corresponding examples on the right.

Step 3. Focused Practice: controlled practice and editing exercises in this section allow students to practice the grammar structures introduced in each unit.

Step 4. Communicative Practice: this section begins with listening comprehension exercises that include various formats like conversations, phone calls, voicemail messages, and news reports.

The speaking activities encourage students to role-play real-life scenarios, solve puzzles, draw pictures, sequence events, or compare pictures. They may also ask and answer questions about personal preferences, feelings, and opinions through surveys or interviews. Finally, the writing activities require students to develop paragraphs or short essays using the target grammatical structures.

4. Results

4.1. PISA Test Results

The Cambridge PISA speaking test results indicate that the participants’ speaking level is on track for B1, which suggests that the students may need more support in developing their speaking skills in order to bring their overall English language ability up to a higher level.

4.2. Pre- and Posttests Results

• Control group: Pretest and Posttest Score Differences

To compare the pretest scores and posttest scores of the control group, the Shapiro–Wilk test was used to check the normality of the difference in test scores (posttest–pretest). The p-value of the test was 0.7712. Since the p-value was greater than 0.05, we accepted the null hypothesis of the normality of the difference in test scores. The paired t-test was conducted to determine whether, on average, there was a difference in test scores for the control group. Therefore, the null hypothesis $\left(H_0\right) is:$ There is no difference on average in test scores in pretest and posttest $\left(H_0: {\mu }_d=0, where d=Post-Pre\right)$ whereas the alternative hypothesis $\left(H_1\right)$ is: There is a difference on average in tests scores in pretest and posttest $\left({\mu }_d\ne 0\right).$

As shown in Figure 2 below, the average pretest score was 30.81 while the average score of the posttest increased to 38.27. The p-value of the student test was 0.03592 since the p-value was less than 0.05. Therefore, we reject the null hypothesis and state that there is a significant difference between students’ scores in the pretest and the posttest. Thus, the students’ scores of the control group in the posttest are greater than those in the pretest. Moreover, since Cohen’s d of effect size was 0.57 < 0.8, we can conclude that the differences between the students’ scores (in the control group) in the pretest and the posttest were medium with respect to effect size.

• Experimental group: Pretest and Posttest Score Differences

For the posttest, the Shapiro–Wilk test’s p-value was 0.2022. Since the p-value was greater than 0.05, we accepted the null hypothesis of the normality of the difference in test scores. The paired t-test was conducted to determine whether, on average, there was a difference in test scores for the experimental group. The null hypothesis $\left(H_0\right) is:$ There is no difference on average in tests scores in pretest and posttest $\left(H_0: {\mu }_d=0, where d=Post-Pre\right)$. Whereas the alternative hypothesis $\left(H_1\right) \mathrm{is}:$ There is a difference on average in tests scores in pretest and posttest $\left({\mu }_d\ne 0\right).$

As shown in Figure 3 below, the average pretest score was 48.41 while the average score of the posttest increased to 61.93. The p-value of the student test was 0.000384, which indicates that there was a significant difference between the students’ scores in the pretest and the posttest. Therefore, the students’ scores of the experimental group in the posttest were greater than their scores in the pretest. Moreover, since Cohen’s d of effect size is 0.89 > 0.8, we can conclude that the differences in the students’ scores between the pretest and posttest were large with respect to effect size.

• Comparison between Control Group and Experimental Group Results.

To compare the students’ posttest scores between the control group and the experimental group, Figure 3 below shows the distribution of the student’s posttest scores for both the control group and the experimental group. Figure 3 clearly shows that large scores tend to occur in the experimental group; nonetheless, the independent samples t-test was used to check whether large scores tended to occur in the experimental group and the Cohen’s d was used to measure the effect size between the two groups. The results of the analysis were as follows:

• The Shapiro–Wilk test of normality showed that the student scores for both the control group and experimental group were normally distributed (p-value = 0.31, p-value = 0.92).
• The Fisher’s test of equality of variance showed that the student’s scores had the same variance for both the control group and experimental group (p-value = 0.15 > 0.05).

With reference to Figure 4 below, it is clear that the mean scores were 38.27 for the control group and 61.93 for the experimental group. Moreover, the p-value of the student test was $3.5\times {10}^{-5}$ and the Cohen’s d of effect size was large (2.10 > 0.8). Therefore, we can conclude that there was a significant difference in the students’ scores on the posttest between the control group and the experimental group, with a large effect size.

Based on the results shown in

Table 2. Comparison of posttest average scores for activity I between control and experimental groups.

Categories of Activity I in the Posttest	Average Scores of the Experimental Group in Activity I of the Posttest	Average Scores of the Control Group in Activity I of the Posttest
Proper usage of passive voice with yes/no questions (/12)	7.83	2.64
Proper usage of passive with modals (/6)	5.46	2.73
Proper usage of passive causative (the passive causative form with the appropriate form of “have” or “get” + object + past participle) (/15 pts)	12.63	7.73
Pronunciation (pronunciation is accurate, with correct inflections, numbers of syllables, and other correct nuances of pronunciation) (/2.5 pts)	1.75	1.23
Fluency (the student should speak confidently and clearly with no distraction; ideas should flow smoothly) (/2.5 pts)	1.75	1.23
Relevant content and organization (recording includes a central theme, a clear point of view, and a logical sequence of information; events and messages are presented in a logical order, with relevant information that matches the video’s main transcript) (/7 pts)	5.92	3.68
Clarity of voice (/2.5 pts)	2.33	1.59
Duration (2–3 min) (/2.5 pts)	2.5	1.95
Total (/50 pts)	40.16/50	22.77/50

below, it is clear that the experimental group outperformed the control group in all categories of activity I in the posttest. The experimental group scored significantly higher than the control group on yes/no questions and in the passive form and passive causative sections with scores of 7.83 out of 12 and 12.63 out of 15, respectively, compared to 2.64 and 7.75, respectively, for the control group. The experimental group also performed better in pronunciation, fluency, relevant content and organization, and clarity of voice sections with scores of 1.75 out of 2.5, 1.75 out of 2.5, 5.92 out of 7, and 2.33 out of 2.5, respectively, compared to 1.23, 1.23, 3.68, and 1.59, respectively, for the control group.

Moreover, the results of activity II in the posttests of the control and the experimental groups in

Table 3. Comparison of posttest average scores for activity II between control and experimental groups.

Categories of Pretest and Posttest Activity II	Average Scores of the Experimental Group in Task II of the Posttest	Average Scores of the Control Group in Task II of the Posttest
Accurate usage of passive with modals in an affirmative form (/2 pts):	1.83	1.45
Accurate usage of passive with similar expressions (4/ pts):	2.96	1.77
Form the simple past passive (/4 pts)	3.5	2.5
Accurate usage of passive causative (/4 pts):	3.13	1.77
Pronunciation (pronunciation is accurate, with correct inflections, numbers of syllables and other correct nuances of pronunciation) (/2 pts)	1.63	1.14
Fluency (the student should speak confidently and clearly with no distraction; ideas should flow smoothly) (/2 pts)	1.58	1.18
Edited recording content (the student’s recording matches the content of the given letter, and the corrected six errors in the use of the passive are integrated into the recorded complaint letter.) (/3 pts)	2.96	2.36
Clarity of voice (/2 pts)	1.83	1.45
Duration (1 min) (/2 pts)	1.88	1.59
Total (/25)	21.29/25 = 42.58/50	15.22/25 = 30.45/50

below show that the experimental group outperformed the control group in all categories. The experimental group scored significantly higher than the control group in the passive causative and passive with similar expressions sections, with scores of 3.13 out of 4 and 2.96 out of 4, respectively, compared to 1.77 and 1.77, respectively, for the control group. The experimental group also performed better in the simple past passive and the passive with modals with scores of 3.5 out of 4 and 1.83 out of 2, respectively, compared to 2.5 and 1.45, respectively, for the control group. Moreover, the experimental group showed better results in the pronunciation, fluency, edited recording content, clarity of voice, and duration sections with scores of 1.63 out of 2, 1.58 out of 2, 2.96 out of 3, 1.83 out of 2, and 1.88 out of 2, respectively, compared to 1.14, 1.18, 2.36, 1.45, and 1.59, respectively, for the control group.

The results shown in Table 3 above suggest that the digital storytelling strategy implemented in the experimental group was more effective in helping the students understand and use the different forms of the passive voice compared to the traditional method used in the control group.

5. Discussion

Overall, the results indicate that the implementation of digital storytelling in EFL grammar classrooms has shown significant promise in improving EFL Arabic-speaking students’ oral proficiency, particularly in the use of various forms of the passive voice. The comparative analysis of pretest and posttest scores between the control and experimental groups highlights the effectiveness of digital storytelling. The experimental group, which engaged with storytelling techniques, achieved a remarkable increase in their posttest scores, averaging 61.93 compared to the control group’s 38.27. This substantial difference, supported by a large effect size (Cohen’s d of 2.10), underscores the transformative impact of digital storytelling on learners’ grasp of the different passive forms and their ability to contextualize and integrate them successfully in their digital story retelling. This result is in line with numerous studies that have examined the impact of storytelling on the growth of L2 receptive and productive skills [37,38], as well as on the development of L2 grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation [39].

Digital storytelling encourages the participants in the experimental group to actively participate in their learning process, allowing them to contextualize grammatical concepts within engaging narratives. The experimental group, in particular, excelled in tasks involving yes/no questions, passive forms, and passive causatives, achieving scores that significantly surpassed those of the control group. This suggests that the implementation of the digital storytelling technique not only made grammar more relatable but also facilitated a deeper understanding and application of passive voice structures. Additionally, students in the experimental group exhibited greater clarity of voice, improvements in pronunciation, fluency, and overall content organization and cohesion. These results further demonstrate the holistic benefits of integrating digital storytelling into EFL instruction. These results are in line with various studies in the literature review for this pilot study, suggesting that retelling digital storytelling holds promise as an effective strategy for advancing EFL students’ use of the passive voice in their oral skills [35] and enhancing EFL students’ fluency, accuracy, and clarity of voice [39].

In conclusion, the findings of this pilot study suggest that digital storytelling is a valuable pedagogical tool in EFL grammar classrooms, especially for the target population whose Cambridge PISA speaking test results indicated that students demonstrated a foundational speaking level (A1), suggesting a need for enhanced support to elevate their overall English language abilities. By fostering a deeper understanding of passive voice forms and improving oral proficiency, this approach not only engages students but also equips them with the necessary skills to navigate complex language structures effectively. Future research should explore the long-term impacts and potential applications of digital storytelling across various language competencies to further enrich EFL education. The effectiveness of this approach was measured in terms of quantitative improvements in posttest scores as well as qualitative feedback from students on their engagement and confidence. The effectiveness of digital storytelling might have broader implications for teaching complex grammatical structures in EFL settings and how it could be adapted for other learning contexts or expanded in future research.

6. Limitations of the Study

This pilot study acknowledges several limitations. The relatively small sample size and the specific context of a private Lebanese university may limit the generalizability of the findings. Future research could explore the effectiveness of digital storytelling in a variety of educational settings with larger and more diverse populations. Additionally, further studies might examine the long-term impact of this approach on overall language proficiency, as well as its potential benefits in other areas of language learning, such as writing and listening skills [25].

The pilot study was conducted during the 2021/2022 spring semester, a time when Lebanon was grappling with the COVID-19 pandemic, the Beirut port explosion aftermath, and a severe economic crisis. Although the pandemic presented an opportunity for teachers and students to develop digital proficiencies and adapt to a new learning environment, the transition to distance education was challenging, particularly in Lebanon. A recent survey found that more than 4 in 10 youth in Lebanon had to reduce spending on education to afford basic necessities, while 3 in 10 stopped their education altogether [40]. These crises contributed to lower enrollment in this course, limiting the study to a single class with a small number of participants. As a result, the findings may not be broadly generalizable. However, this pilot study lays the groundwork for more extensive research in regional contexts.

The shift to distance education during the pandemic posed additional challenges. This study required students to use mobile phones, tablets with keyboards, or laptops to attend synchronous and asynchronous online classes, complete assignments, access resources on Google Classroom, create and retell digital stories, and record their voices. However, many students faced significant barriers, including economic hardship, frequent network disruptions, electricity outages, limited access to technical maintenance, weak internet connections, costly data packages, and a lack of secure and conducive study environments. These issues led to missed sessions, interruptions during live classes, the need to share devices during group work, and reliance on family members’ homes or other locations with better internet access to complete assignments and adapt to the digital shift.

Furthermore, the pandemic’s safety restrictions forced both teachers and students to rapidly transition to online learning, using various platforms for asynchronous and synchronous classes. This sudden shift made it difficult for the course instructor to monitor the students’ learning processes, observe their body language and expressions, and provide individualized attention. These challenges may have contributed to reduced motivation and engagement among students [7].

7. Conclusions

This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of digital storytelling in enhancing the oral production of the passive voice among Lebanese undergraduate EFL students. The findings demonstrate that integrating digital storytelling into the language curriculum can significantly improve students’ ability to use the passive voice in oral communication. The experimental group, which participated in digital storytelling activities, showed substantial improvement in both grammatical accuracy and fluency compared to the control group, which followed traditional instructional methods [27,31].

The use of digital storytelling provided a dynamic and interactive platform for students to engage with complex grammatical structures, fostering a deeper understanding of the passive voice within authentic communicative contexts. By encouraging students to retell stories using target grammatical forms, the approach helped them contextualize and internalize the rules of passive voice use more effectively than traditional teaching methods. Furthermore, students in the experimental group demonstrated enhanced pronunciation, fluency, and clarity of voice, suggesting that this method not only improved grammatical competence but also had broader positive effects on overall oral proficiency [7,37].

The implications of these findings are significant, particularly in the EFL context, where students often struggle with the application of grammatical structures in spoken English. Digital storytelling, by merging technology with narrative, offers an innovative and engaging pedagogical tool that can address these challenges. The study’s results suggest that digital storytelling not only aids in the mastery of specific grammatical features like the passive voice but also enhances learners’ motivation and engagement, crucial factors for successful language acquisition [30,33].

While the results of this pilot study are promising, the study’s context—a private Lebanese university with a relatively small sample size—limits the generalizability of the findings. Future research should explore the long-term effects of digital storytelling in diverse educational settings with larger sample sizes. Additionally, integrating more objective measures, such as speech recognition tools, could provide deeper insights into the linguistic gains observed in terms of fluency, pronunciation, and prosody.

In conclusion, digital storytelling presents a valuable, scalable method for improving both grammatical accuracy and communicative competence in EFL learners. As educational practices continue to evolve, particularly with the integration of digital tools, it is essential to explore innovative strategies like digital storytelling to enrich language teaching and learning outcomes [14,41].