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  • Review
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2 April 2024

Bioinspired Polymers: Bridging Nature’s Ingenuity with Synthetic Innovation

and
Barry and Judy Silverman College of Pharmacy, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33328, USA
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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
Current address: CONRAD, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA 23507, USA.
Macromol2024, 4(2), 190-212;https://doi.org/10.3390/macromol4020010
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Abstract

This review delves into the cutting-edge field of bioinspired polymer composites, tackling the complex task of emulating nature’s efficiency in synthetic materials. The research is dedicated to creating materials that not only mirror the strength and resilience found in natural structures, such as spider silk and bone, but also prioritize environmental sustainability. The study explores several critical aspects, including the design of lightweight composites, the development of reversible adhesion methods that draw inspiration from nature, and the creation of high-performance sensing and actuation devices. Moreover, it addresses the push toward more eco-friendly material practices, such as ice mitigation techniques and sustainable surface engineering. The exploration of effective energy storage solutions and the progress in biomaterials for biomedical use points to a multidisciplinary approach to surpass the existing barriers in material science. This paper highlights the promise held by bioinspired polymer composites to fulfill the sophisticated needs of contemporary applications, highlighting the urgent call for innovative and sustainable advancements.

1. Introduction

This paper explores the field of bioinspired polymer composites, emphasizing the multidisciplinary challenges researchers encounter. The primary aim is to mimic the efficiency and functionality found in natural materials within engineered counterparts. A key hurdle is distinguishing mechanical properties from their structural makeup, enabling the customization of materials for specific uses. The study focuses on bioinspired metal-coordination dynamics [1] and polymer–inorganic hybrid materials [2], striving to create materials that can withstand severe conditions, taking inspiration from the durability of spider silk [3] and the strength of bone [4]. The objective is to produce materials that are not only robust and long-lasting [5,6,7] but also environmentally sustainable, pointing out the existing gaps in material engineering that need addressing to fulfill the intricate requirements of modern applications.
Sustainability stands out as a critical issue, propelling the creation of materials that preserve their mechanical integrity and corrosion resistance while reducing environmental harm. The fabrication of lightweight yet sturdy composites [8,9], coupled with the adoption of sophisticated manufacturing techniques [10,11], underlines a dedication to sustainable practices.
In the domain of adhesion and surface engineering, ongoing research is directed toward developing adaptable, reversible, and eco-friendly adhesive methods. Innovations include beetle-inspired reversible interlocking mechanisms [12] and bio-based polymeric materials [13], with an additional focus on enhancing surface protection and functionality under challenging conditions [14], where bioinspired solutions show significant potential.
The quest for high-performance, responsive devices for sensing and actuation represents another challenge. Investigations include luminescence-based sensors and actuators [15,16,17] and soft actuators [18,19,20], aiming for selective detection and flexible actuation. This effort is bolstered by advancements in biomaterials for biomedical uses [21,22], concentrating on dependable substances for drug delivery [23] and tissue regeneration [24].
Environmental concerns have also led to the development of materials aimed at preventing ice formation [25] and promoting eco-friendly surface treatments [26,27], emphasizing the necessity for materials that tackle ecological issues without compromising on performance.
In energy storage and conversion, the pursuit of materials capable of effective CO2 capture [28] and enhanced energy storage solutions [29,30,31,32,33] underlines the significance of confronting energy and environmental challenges through bioinspired methods. Innovations in conductive adhesives [34], 4D transformations in polymers [35], and solid polymer electrolytes [36] seek to overcome the traditional limitations faced by electrical and electronic materials.
Moreover, progress in bioprocessing and biomolecular engineering, such as the enhancement of specific enrichment for disease markers [37] and the improvement of enzymes acting on lignocellulose [38], underlines the necessity for technologies that boost efficiency and accuracy. These endeavors, together with advances in enhancing the performance of organic light-emitting diodes (OLED) [39] and advancing photoelectrochemical and enzymatic sensing [40], highlight the interdisciplinary approach needed to augment material functionality through bioinspired designs.
This review provides a detailed examination of the challenges and opportunities in bioinspired polymer research. By utilizing state-of-the-art technologies and drawing inspiration from nature, scientists aim to forge materials that not only cater to present needs but also anticipate future requirements, offering promising answers to some of the most pressing issues in materials science and engineering.

2. Biomimicry and Biomimetic Synthetic Polymers

The search for new materials increasingly draws scientists and engineers toward nature for inspiration, leading to the burgeoning field of bioinspired materials science. This area of study marries the complexities of biological phenomena with their synthetic counterparts in polymer science, demonstrating how the natural world drives material innovation. By emulating the molecular makeup of ice-binding proteins or the complex structure of nacre, researchers bridge the gap between biological insights and synthetic advancements.
In the field of biomedical engineering, significant advancements have been made through the development of various polymeric materials designed for specialized applications. Among these, threonine-based polymers, such as pThr and pHPMA, have been identified for their ability to inhibit ice recrystallization, a property crucial for cryopreservation technologies [25]. The engineering of antifouling polymers marks a significant step forward in creating surfaces resistant to biological contamination, which is vital for a range of biomedical devices and implants [41]. Innovations in drug delivery systems have led to the development of bioinspired polymeric nanoparticles encapsulating dopamine, offering new avenues for intranasal dopamine replacement therapies in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease [23]. The use of 2-methacrylooyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC) polymers in the fabrication of artificial organs and biomedical devices highlights the material’s high performance and compatibility with biological systems [42]. Glycopolypeptides have emerged as biofunctional materials with potential applications across various biomedical fields [43], while saccharide-responsive smart copolymers have shown promise in enriching sialylated glycopeptides for disease diagnosis [37].
In the area of material science, polymers have been engineered to enhance their mechanical properties, such as strength, toughness, and adhesion. MXene-based polymer composites have been developed to increase the Young’s modulus and strength, utilizing a brick-and-mortar structure for improved durability [5]. Continuous fiber-reinforced polymer composites offer enhanced toughness, critical for structural applications [6]. The integration of graphene into polymer nanocomposites has been a key focus, optimizing both strength and toughness for advanced materials [7]. High-aspect-ratio polymer fibers draw inspiration from natural locking devices found in beetles’ wings, resulting in reversible interlockers with unique mechanical properties [12]. Nucleobase-containing polymers, produced through thiol-ene polymerization, have yielded tough bioplastics and ultra-strong adhesives [13]. Additionally, polymer gels reinforced with dendritic crystals have been developed to provide reversible and adaptable adhesion capabilities [44].
The field of energy storage and conductivity has also benefited from advancements in polymer technology. Poly(aryl ether sulfone) nanocomposites have been engineered for high-temperature energy storage, boasting enhanced mechanical and electrical performance [3]. Copolymers bearing catechol and Li(+) ion-conducting anionic pendants have been explored as organic cathodes for lithium storage, offering new possibilities for energy storage technologies [31]. Catechol-rich polymers, deposited via atmospheric plasma, serve as redox-active thin films for lithium-ion batteries, contributing to the development of more efficient energy storage solutions [45].
Surface modification and protective coatings have seen innovative developments with the application of polymers. Poly(dodecyl methacrylate) (P12MA) has been used to create low-friction surfaces in high-viscosity solvents, improving the performance and lifespan of various mechanical systems [46]. The engineering of 4-arm poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels with metal–ligand coordinate complexes allows for the control of material mechanics, providing materials with customizable viscoelastic properties [1]. Protective coatings based on alkyl-silanized polymers with nano-silica have been developed to protect magnesium alloys against corrosion, extending their usability and durability [47].
In the domain of smart materials and sensing, significant progresses have been made. Liquid crystal nanoparticle actuators enabled by polymer surfactant-assisted assembly offer smart interfaces with adjustable light and color, opening new possibilities for display technologies [16]. Graphene–polymer heterogeneous sensing junctions have been developed for high-performance humidity sensors, suitable for integration into wearable devices [17]. Conjugated polymers and liquid crystal elastomers have been used to create near-infrared light-induced, ultrafast soft actuators, capable of tunable deformation and motion, indicating a leap forward in the development of responsive materials [19].
Table 1 outlines the diversity of bioinspired materials, pairing various biological inspirations with their biomimetic synthetic polymers. This categorization covers a broad spectrum of sources, from general bioinspiration to specific biological structures, such as bone and leaves, marine organisms, such as mussels and barnacles, and principles, such as biomineralization. It presents a comprehensive view of biomimetic polymers’ applications, extending from antifouling polymers to composite materials designed to replicate natural structures.
Table 1. Bioinspired polymer composites: mimicking nature’s design.

4. Outcomes and Achievements

The exploration of bioinspired polymers and their incorporation into the field of materials science and composite development has facilitated notable advances. A crucial breakthrough in this area is the decoupling of a material’s mechanical behavior from its structural components, allowing for the fine-tuning of its mechanical hierarchy and viscoelastic properties through adjustments in metal–ligand crosslinks [1]. This breakthrough has led to the creation of polymer–inorganic hybrid materials using structured polymer templates to control crystal growth [2], representing a significant stride forward. The development of materials that maintain high energy density and efficiency at elevated temperatures, through bioinspired nanoconfinement techniques, marks substantial progress in polymer-based dielectrics [3]. The integration of inorganic ionic oligomers within polymer matrices has yielded materials with unparalleled bending strain and toughness, surpassing natural nacre and many synthetic counterparts [4]. Moreover, the successful mineralization of calcium carbonate within polymer vesicles highlights the potential for biomimetic mineralization in confined spaces [55].
In enhancing mechanical performance and developing composite materials, research has led to remarkable enhancements. Emulating a bioinspired brick-and-mortar structure has increased Young’s modulus by 25.1% and strength by 42.3%, improving load transfer and damage resistance [5]. Merging natural designs with engineering principles has produced composite structures with high mechanical performance [6]. Graphene-based nanocomposites have benefited from bioinspired hierarchical structures and toughening mechanisms, enhancing their mechanical properties [7]. The creation of high-toughness ceramics that mimic the structure of bone, featuring significant organic–inorganic interfaces, has improved energy dissipation and mechanical resilience [52]. Additionally, polymer composite films inspired by the layered microstructure of nacre have achieved extraordinary levels of stiffness, strength, and toughness [10].
Polymer/graphene composites with a nacre-like layered structure have enhanced mechanical and electrical properties, pioneering a new method for high-content graphene reinforcement [49]. Ceramic/polymer composites with a lamellar structure have shown improved mechanical performance [54]. Innovations include a doubling of strength and a five-fold increase in plasticity in aluminum composites reinforced with soft polymers, processed using a friction stir technique [56]. Engineering hierarchical structures in nanocomposites has led to superior mechanical properties and multiscale deformation mechanisms [9], while bioinspired mineralization techniques have significantly bolstered composite mechanical properties for better reinforcement [11]. Research has yielded high strength and toughness in GO/polymer nanocomposite paper, suitable for electronic and engineering applications [60], and enhanced the electrical and thermal conductivity in copper matrix composites through a straightforward fabrication process [63].
In the sphere of adhesion and surface engineering, recent innovations have tackled complex challenges with significant ingenuity. The development of a reversible interlocker, leveraging the van der Waals forces between high-aspect-ratio polymer fibers, has provided a robust shear locking force while facilitating easy separation [12]. Advances in durable bioplastics and ultra-strong adhesives have emerged from nucleobase-containing polymers that form complementary hydrogen-bonding interactions [13]. Ultra-strong and reversible adhesives, taking cues from the adhesion strategies of creeper plants, enable controlled adhesion and detachment through reversible phase transitions induced by light and heat [44]. Materials combining effective adhesion with anisotropic thermal conductivity, drawing inspiration from the natural adhesion mechanisms of snails and mussels, offer both high surface adhesion and enhanced phonon transport [50]. A simple polymerization process, emulating the adhesion strategy of barnacles, has resulted in interfaces with high adhesive strength, durability, toughness, and fatigue resistance [51]. Furthermore, a bioinspired dynamic bonding technique has significantly improved the adhesion strength of polymer resins, increasing their toughness by 50% [53].
In the field of tribology, significant strides have been made toward improving the wear resistance of materials. Silica surfaces, in particular, have demonstrated high wear resistance, with the performance depending on the anchoring method. The use of catechol groups combined with electrostatic forces has led to enhanced outcomes [48]. By emulating the lubrication mechanisms observed in synovial joints, researchers have achieved impressively low friction coefficients and wear rates under extreme conditions [46]. Additionally, the development of self-organized prismatic films on polymeric surfaces, taking inspiration from biomineralization processes, offers a new avenue for boosting tribological performance [14].
In sensing and actuation, a broad spectrum of bioinspired innovations has emerged. These advancements range from sensors with turn-on luminescence for selective sensing influenced by Ph [15], to materials designed for adaptive light control, self-shading, and color tuning in response to environmental shifts, suitable for smart textiles and bionic skins [16]. Noteworthy achievements include materials that exhibit exceptional humidity sensing over a wide range, with quick response and recovery [17], materials that allow for large and directional deformation, leading to reversible color changes [18], ultrafast soft actuators capable of precise deformation control for applications in micromachines and soft robotics [19], and hybrid hydrogel actuators that simulate an “extension–grasp–retraction” motion, pushing the boundaries of soft actuation [20]. Innovations also include materials with enhanced flexibility, self-healing abilities, and underwater functionality for complex motion sensing [66], advancements in ionic permeability and specific ion channel isolation for new sensing and filtration technologies [70], high-sensitivity photodetection for bioelectronic interfaces [71], programmable polymer gel films for dynamic 3D origami/kirigami structures in bioelectronics and micro-robotics [72], a self-powered flexible nanogenerator with excellent piezoelectric energy conversion efficiency for energy harvesting [76], and ultrasensitive sensors for liquid environments inspired by fish swim bladders, demonstrating unmatched performance across solid/liquid/gas interfaces [78]. These developments signify the profound impact of bioinspired approaches across various scientific and engineering disciplines.
In the biomedical and drug delivery arena, remarkable innovations include integrating noble metal nanostructures into three-dimensional porous scaffolds for sensing, catalysis, and tissue engineering applications [21]. Surface treatments that boost cell viability and functionality in organ-on-a-chip systems represent a significant leap forward in pathophysiological research and drug screening [22]. Novel antibacterial coatings that offer tunable adhesion and antimicrobial properties open new paths for medical applications [64]. Enhanced methods for dopamine delivery for Parkinson’s disease treatment, featuring high encapsulation efficiency and lower toxicity, are promising [23]. Progress in materials that are compatible with blood and tissue for artificial organs highlights the potential for revolutionary biomedical devices [42]. Further advancements include targeted drug delivery systems [43], the reversible control of peptide–polymer structure transitions using calcium ions [65], and bioactive scaffolds that support both bone formation and blood vessel growth for vascularized bone regeneration [24]. Developments that bridge proteins and bulk polymers offer adjustable properties for uses in biomedical and nanoscience fields [67], extending to dental materials with superior fatigue resistance [68] and the creation of strong, biocompatible, and bioactive nanocomposite films for tissue engineering and food packaging [69]. Additionally, the development of antifouling and antimicrobial polymer membranes featuring improved hydrophilicity, wettability, and durability [75] marks significant progress.
In both biomedical and environmental contexts, initiatives to control ice crystal growth have shown inhibition activity akin to that of ice-binding proteins at various molecular weights [25]. Efforts to enhance adsorption and desorption on chemically structured substrates are leading to environmentally friendly products with superior performance [26]. The creation of durable superhydrophobic surfaces with hierarchical structures provides exceptional water repellence, ideal for self-cleaning and antifouling applications [27]. Progress in developing surfaces resistant to fouling by proteins, cells, and bacteria is vital for maintaining the functionality and safety of biomedical devices [41]. Advances in the hydrophobicity and corrosion resistance of magnesium alloys, inspired by the lotus leaf, suggest potential applications in industrial anticorrosion strategies. Eduok et al.’s evaluation of the coatings’ barrier efficacy and corrosion resistance through electrochemical and surface analyses demonstrates their applicability in metal surface treatments and anticorrosion paints [47] (Figure 1).
Figure 1. An illustrative preparation protocol of a bioinspired alkyl-silanized coating for Mg corrosion prevention reported in this study [47].
In the area of electrical and electronic materials, notable achievements have been realized, such as the development of a metal-free, high-performance, electrically conductive adhesive. This innovation enables effective electrical connections for a broad range of uses [34]. Another milestone is the capacity to selectively influence the crystallinity in shape-memory polymers, offering a path toward re-processable and environmentally sustainable options for advanced morphing devices [35]. Furthermore, the creation of chitosan-based memory devices, which provide consistent and reliable resistive switching, represents a green alternative for the field of nanoelectronics [36].
Significant progress has been made in environmental and antifouling applications with the development of long-lasting, eco-friendly solutions for combating bacterial and marine biofouling [57]. Advances in polymer films that block UV radiation while remaining transparent to visible light cater perfectly to UV-protection needs [58]. The fabrication of micro-structured polymer surfaces with antireflective qualities, inspired by the ultra-black appearance of the peacock spider, showcases the successful merger of nature-inspired designs with technological progress [61]. Figure 2 features 3D models of various microarrays designed from surface equations and executed in polyacrylate resin via two-photon polymerization. Examined using scanning electron microscopy, these models demonstrate excellent antireflective capabilities with very low reflectance at normal incidence [61].
Figure 2. The fabrication and characterization of antireflective microarrays stimulated by the peacock spider’s super-black structures encountered in nature. First: different microarray 3D models are produced from a surface equation. Second: the arrays are invented in a polyacrylate resin via super-resolution 3D printing through two-photon polymerization. Third: the bioinspired micro-lens arrays show excellent antireflective properties [61].
Moreover, the development of humidity-sensitive color-changing photonic polymer coatings marks a leap forward in sensing, display technologies, anticounterfeiting, and biomimetic camouflage [62], emphasizing the dynamic and influential nature of research in these areas with wide-ranging potential applications.
In energy storage and conversion, significant advancements have been made. Improvements in the mechanical strength and cycle retention of Si anodes for lithium-ion batteries counter the substantial volume changes during charge and discharge cycles [29]. The production of redox-active thin films via atmospheric plasma deposition marks a significant leap in battery technology, presenting an effective method to enhance lithium-ion batteries [45]. Bimetallic coordination polymers have demonstrated high efficiency in catalyzing water splitting, showcasing outstanding performance [30]. Innovations in lithium storage, featuring ultra-durable electrochemical energy storage solutions that maintain high capacity over numerous cycles [31], and the development of highly proton-conductive membranes for fuel cells that combine resilience with dimensional stability, signify progress in fuel cell technology [32]. The introduction of aqueous proton batteries, characterized by high voltage and superior rate capacity, indicates a notable advancement in energy storage [33].
In environmental and materials science, substantial advances have been achieved in CO2 separation techniques, attaining performances that exceed the Robeson upper limit for CO2/N2 selectivity [28]. The mechanical properties of energetic composites have been enhanced through interface reinforcement, improving tensile strength, compression strength, and resistance to deformation over time [73]. Additionally, energetic polymer composites have experienced significant gains in mechanical and safety performance via hierarchical interface design [74], highlighting the continual innovation and impact of research in these domains.
In the field of bioprocessing and biomolecular engineering, significant progress has been made in improving the selectivity and efficiency of sialylated glycopeptide enrichment. This advancement is pivotal for identifying disease biomarkers [37]. Studies focusing on the affinity properties of carbohydrate-binding modules have offered valuable insights with the potential to enhance bioprocessing, especially in the biorefinery of plant biomass [38]. In the domain of organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), the development of new hole-conducting polymers has led to devices that exhibit high thermal stability and superior performance [39]. Innovations in photovoltaic and enzymatic sensing have been facilitated by the incorporation of core-shell heterostructures with bioinspired polymers [40], and the creation of human-like self-protection mechanisms in flexible electronics, which demonstrate remarkable switching endurance, opens up possibilities for enhanced human–robot interactions [77].
These breakthroughs, spanning energy storage and conversion, environmental sustainability, bioprocessing, and more, highlight the dynamic and transformative nature of research in bioinspired materials science. Table 3 details these innovations across a multitude of areas, including structural design, material composition, adhesion techniques, surface engineering, tribological improvements, sensing and actuation, biomedical applications, energy storage and conversion, environmental sustainability, and bioprocessing.
Table 3. Bioinspired material innovations across diverse applications.

5. Testing and Evaluation of Bioinspired Polymer Composites

In the advancement of materials science and engineering, a comprehensive suite of specialized tests and analyses is indispensable for assessing various material properties under different conditions. This section highlights the essential tests across multiple research domains, enabling scientists to precisely evaluate mechanical, physical, electrical, and surface characteristics of materials.
For evaluating mechanical, physical, and tribological performance, it is vital to understand materials’ toughness, strength, deformation behavior, viscoelastic properties, and wear resistance. Essential tests in this area include dynamic mechanical analysis [1], the finite element (FE) method for deformation analysis [5], and mechanical testing for bending strains [4]. Tribological tests assess wear resistance [46,48], while specific mechanical tests for ceramics or polymer composites [11,54,59,60], investigation of fatigue behavior under cyclic compression [68], and mechanical assessment under hydrogen-bonding interactions [69] provide a comprehensive evaluation of material resilience.
In material synthesis, structure, and surface engineering, synthesis methods and structure–property relationships are fundamental. This includes using structured polymer templates for crystal growth [2], electro-formation for polymersomes [55], and solution evaporation for reinforced polymers [49]. Surface engineering techniques, such as thiol-ene polymerization [13] and van der Waals force-assisted binding [12], enhance adhesion and develop antifouling membranes [50]. Coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations for adsorption/desorption studies [26] and the creation of bioinspired polymers [41] are key.
For thermal, electrical, and electronic properties, evaluating material performance under temperature variations and their electrical functionalities is critical. This involves assessments of high-temperature mechanical and electrical performance [3], thermal annealing effects [8], and electrical and thermal conductivity [63]. Characteristics of solution-processed electronic materials [36], digital photothermal effect analysis [35], and light-induced actuation [19,20] are essential for creating responsive and dependable materials.
In sensing, actuation, and biomedical applications, the focus is on materials’ responsiveness to external stimuli and biocompatibility for medical applications. This includes luminescence-based sensing [15], supramolecular self-assembly [16], and evaluations of stretchable strain sensors [66]. The efficacy of drug delivery systems is assessed through in vitro and in vivo evaluations [23,24,42], with electrospinning [21] and cell viability tests [22] crucial for biocompatibility assessment.
Advanced manufacturing, environmental, and energy applications emphasize innovative manufacturing techniques and addressing environmental challenges. Tests for reflectance and transmittance characterization [61,62], ice recrystallization inhibition [25], and CO2 permeability in membranes [28] advance this field. In energy storage and conversion, assessing mechanical properties and cycle retention in batteries [29], along with electrochemical characterizations [30,45], are imperative for improving efficiency and capacity.
Finally, in bioprocessing, biomolecular engineering, and environmental science, the emphasis is on leveraging biological principles for material innovation. This includes tests for specific enrichment capacity [37], fluorescence recovery after photobleaching [38], and photoelectrochemical performance evaluations [40], showcasing the diverse methodologies employed in these groundbreaking research areas.

6. Limitations in Developing Bioinspired Synthetic Polymers

The advancement of bioinspired polymer composites has brought significant breakthroughs to various fields yet faces notable obstacles that hinder their broad implementation and practical use. Grouping these challenges cohesively without overlap offers a clearer perspective on the difficulties encountered and pinpoints specific areas needing dedicated improvement efforts.
One major hurdle is scalability and manufacturing. Moving bioinspired composites from the lab to large-scale production presents considerable challenges due to the intricate fabrication processes required and the necessity for precise control over the properties of materials. Achieving uniformity and the ability to scale up for industrial applications proves challenging, affecting the potential for mass production and commercial success while trying to maintain performance and environmental advantages.
Cost and efficiency present another obstacle. The creation and manufacturing of sophisticated bioinspired materials frequently involve high expenses, particularly when dependent on scarce or costly resources or when elaborate processing methods are needed. These cost considerations restrict the availability and broad adoption of bioinspired materials in diverse sectors.
Durability and stability are also of concern. Even with improvements in mechanical properties, questions about the long-term durability and stability of bioinspired composites under real-world conditions linger. This includes issues related to maintaining enduring stability and consistent performance across various, possibly severe, environments and ensuring the longevity and reliability of materials for use in extreme situations or for extended medical applications.
Furthermore, integration challenges complicate the incorporation of bioinspired materials into current technological and biological systems. The distinctive properties and demands of many bioinspired materials necessitate considerable adjustments and fine-tuning to guarantee that these innovative materials can operate effectively within existing frameworks and technologies.
Identifying these limitations features the critical areas where additional research, creativity, and strategic partnerships are essential to surmount the obstacles to the extensive use of bioinspired polymer composites. Tackling these challenges will not only improve the practical application of these materials across various industries but will also pave the way for new opportunities for sustainable and efficient solutions inspired by the natural world.

7. Future Directions

The advancement of bioinspired polymer composites is at a pivotal juncture, necessitating novel strategies across research, development, and deployment to surmount existing barriers and unlock the full potential of these materials. By consolidating future directions into clear themes, we pinpointed crucial focus areas, as outlined below.
Scalability and manufacturing innovation calls for the creation of scalable and cost-efficient manufacturing methods that maintain the quality and properties of bioinspired composites. Innovating manufacturing techniques to handle the complexity and precision of bioinspired designs is essential for improving commercial viability and enabling mass production.
Sustainability and environmental impact emphasize the importance of a detailed analysis of the environmental impact, recyclability, and lifecycle costs of bioinspired composites. This effort is aimed at promoting sustainable development within the field to ensure that these materials are created and used responsibly, minimizing environmental footprints. It is imperative to focus research on both the scalability and sustainability of these materials, considering their environmental implications.
Advanced material properties and integration highlights the need for incorporating additional functionalities, such as self-healing, adaptability, and sensory capabilities, into bioinspired composites. Expanding the functionalities will broaden their applicability, making them suitable for an extensive range of uses. The development of smart and multifunctional materials that respond to environmental stimuli or perform multiple functions is crucial.
Collaborative and interdisciplinary approaches stress the need for enhanced collaboration across various disciplines due to the complex nature of challenges facing bioinspired composites. Encouraging interdisciplinary research among materials scientists, chemists, biologists, and engineers is vital for sparking innovative breakthroughs and tackling current limitations.
Durability, testing, and performance enhancement focus on improving the durability, stability, and functionality of bioinspired materials in real-world conditions. Conducting thorough in situ testing and longevity studies will provide insights into these materials’ performance and degradation mechanisms over time, informing further development.

8. Conclusions

The cumulative achievements in materials science and composite development have marked a path for significant advancements across various sectors. Bioinspired polymer composites have demonstrated their versatility, offering solutions with immense potential across mechanical performance, surface engineering, tribology, sensing and actuation, biomedical applications, electrical and electronic materials, environmental solutions, and bioprocessing. Despite these advancements, challenges related to scalability, cost, durability, and integration pose obstacles to their widespread adoption. Addressing these challenges with creative and focused efforts, including scalable manufacturing, sustainable development, enhancement of material properties, collaborative research, and comprehensive testing, is essential. By prioritizing these future directions, the scientific community can lead the field toward creating sustainable, functional, and technologically compatible materials, opening new avenues for innovation inspired by the intricacies of nature.

Author Contributions

The authors confirm contributions to the paper, as follows: conceptualization, writing, review, and editing, H.O.; investigation, review, and editing, N.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This review article received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors partly used the OpenAI Large-Scale Language Model to maximize accuracy, clarity, and organization.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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