Workplace Stressors and the Intention to Quit: The Role of Psychological Distress and Psychological Flexibility Among Hospitality Employees

Abstract

This study investigates how workplace stressors influence the intention to quit among male employees working in five-star hotels in Egypt, with a focus on the mediating role of psychological distress and the moderating role of psychological flexibility. A cross-sectional survey was conducted with 334 full-time male hospitality workers. Using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), the study examined the relationships between workplace stressors, psychological distress, the intention to quit, and psychological flexibility. The results showed that higher levels of workplace stressors were significantly associated with increased psychological distress and a stronger intention to quit. Psychological distress partially explained (mediated) the link between stressors and quitting intentions. Moreover, psychological flexibility acted as a buffer (moderator), reducing the negative impact of workplace stress on distress and, in turn, on quitting intentions. These findings highlight the unique contribution of the study in applying the transactional model of stress and coping within a Middle Eastern hospitality context, focusing exclusively on male workers—an understudied group in the existing literature. To address these challenges, hospitality managers are encouraged to adopt evidence-based interventions such as mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) to strengthen employees’ psychological flexibility and reduce the turnover risk. The study offers valuable insights for researchers, organizational leaders, and HR practitioners aiming to improve employee well-being and retention in high-pressure service environments.

1. Introduction

Workplace stressors have become a critical concern for organizations worldwide due to their profound impact on employee health, productivity, and organizational sustainability. As modern work environments grow increasingly complex and demanding, stressors related to workload, ambiguity in job roles, lack of autonomy, poor communication, and technological pressures have been consistently identified as sources of emotional strain among employees (Cmiosh, 2024; El-Sherbeeny et al., 2023; Cascio & Montealegre, 2016). The consequences of these stressors are far-reaching and include increased absenteeism, presenteeism, reduced job satisfaction, low morale, and a heightened intention to quit, which ultimately threaten organizational performance and employee well-being (Zaki & Al-Romeedy, 2018). The World Health Organization reports that workplace stress has become one of the leading occupational health risks, contributing significantly to global productivity losses and health care costs.

In this context, the hospitality industry is particularly exposed to high levels of occupational stress. As a service-intensive and labor-dependent sector, hospitality demands emotional labor, consistent customer interaction, irregular shifts, and continuous operational pressure—all of which make it a fertile ground for chronic work-related stress. Employees in this sector often work in high-paced environments with unpredictable customer behaviors, tight deadlines, and performance metrics tied directly to service quality and client satisfaction (Tamunomiebi & Mezeh, 2021). These stressors are not uniformly experienced; they vary based on the role, tenure, management style, and gender expectations, with unique implications for psychological resilience and job outcomes. For example, workers in front-of-house roles experience greater emotional demands due to direct client contact, while back-end roles may face operational stress tied to efficiency and delivery expectations.

Workplace stressors can be grouped into three broad categories: organizational (e.g., poor leadership, unclear tasks, understaffing), social (e.g., interpersonal conflict, bullying, lack of support), and professional (e.g., career stagnation, job insecurity, low recognition). Exposure to these factors has been empirically linked to psychological distress—a condition characterized by symptoms such as anxiety, emotional exhaustion, and depression (Maslach & Leiter, 2016; McCormack & Cotter, 2013). Distress disrupts employees’ ability to focus, interact constructively with colleagues, or engage meaningfully in their work. In parallel, psychological flexibility—defined as the ability to remain open to experiences, adapt to situational demands, and maintain alignment with values under stress—has emerged as a key protective factor. High flexibility allows employees to regulate their emotions and maintain functionality despite challenges, while low flexibility fosters rigid thought patterns, emotional reactivity, and avoidance behaviors that increase the risk of turnover (Archer et al., 2024; Putnam et al., 2014; Chan & Wan, 2012).

Although previous research has investigated the link between workplace stress and turnover intentions, few studies have examined the specific mechanisms through which stressors influence the intention to quit. In particular, the mediating role of psychological distress and the moderating role of psychological flexibility remain underexplored in the hospitality context. Moreover, most studies on workplace stress in hospitality either use generalized samples or focus disproportionately on female workers, leaving significant gaps in our understanding of how male employees—especially in patriarchal societies with strong gender roles—experience, interpret, and cope with occupational stress. The hospitality sector in Egypt presents a compelling case: male employees often shoulder the financial responsibilities as primary breadwinners and face societal pressure to exhibit emotional control, which can lead to suppressed distress and unaddressed mental health needs. This sociocultural backdrop shapes how stress is perceived and managed, making it essential to study the stress responses in this specific population.

Despite the growing recognition of psychological flexibility in organizational psychology, its potential to mitigate the negative impact of stressors on distress and the turnover intention has not been sufficiently examined in non-Western or male-dominated contexts. Likewise, the impact of distress as a mediating variable has been highlighted conceptually but lacks empirical testing in hospitality workplaces that are culturally conservative and operationally intense. Understanding these dynamics is vital not only for theoretical refinement but also for designing tailored interventions that reflect the psychological realities and social expectations of different worker groups.

Accordingly, the present study aims to fill these research gaps by examining the relationship between workplace stressors and the intention to quit among male employees working in five-star hotels in Egypt. Specifically, the study (A) investigates the direct effects of workplace stressors on psychological distress, psychological flexibility, and turnover intention; (B) explores the mediating role of psychological distress in the relationship between workplace stressors and the intention to quit; (C) assesses the moderating role of psychological flexibility in the relationship between stressors and psychological distress; and (D) examines the moderating role of psychological flexibility in the relationship between stressors and the intention to quit. Through this lens, the study offers a novel contribution by contextualizing stress management within a gender-specific and culturally relevant framework, grounded in the transactional model of stress and coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).

By focusing on a specific but underrepresented workforce segment, this research not only contributes new insights to the occupational stress literature but also offers practical implications for hospitality organizations aiming to improve the retention and mental health outcomes. The findings can inform evidence-based interventions—such as flexibility training, resilience programs, and role redesign—tailored to the sociocultural and operational needs of male hospitality workers in similar high-pressure contexts.

2. Literature Review and Hypothesis Development

2.1. Transactional Model of Stress and Coping

The transactional model of stress and coping provides a robust theoretical framework to examine the relationships among workplace stressors, psychological distress, psychological flexibility, and the intention to quit, as outlined in this study focusing on male hospitality and tourism workers. This model emphasizes that stress arises not only from external stressors but also from an individual’s appraisal of these stressors and their perceived ability to cope (Dillard, 2019). It views stress as a dynamic interaction between the person and their environment, making it highly relevant for understanding the workplace dynamics in the hospitality and tourism sector (Zaki & Al-Romeedy, 2018; El-Sherbeeny et al., 2023). The workplace stressors in this industry, such as demanding schedules, interpersonal conflicts, and job insecurity, often create high-pressure environments (Mustafa et al., 2015).

According to the model, stress occurs when these stressors are appraised as threatening during the primary appraisal process (Aliane et al., 2023). Male hospitality and tourism workers may perceive these stressors as particularly challenging due to societal pressures and cultural expectations of resilience and stoicism (Zaki & Al-Romeedy, 2018). If, during the secondary appraisal, they feel that they lack adequate coping resources—such as organizational support or personal resilience—this perception of imbalance leads to psychological distress (Heath et al., 2020; Labrague & de Los Santos, 2021). The model helps explain how these cognitive appraisals transform external workplace demands into internal emotional and psychological strain (Agina et al., 2023). Psychological distress, a core focus of this study, aligns with the model’s outcomes of ineffective stress appraisal and coping (Spătaru et al., 2024).

When workers are unable to manage or adapt to the demands of their jobs, they experience heightened levels of anxiety, frustration, or burnout (McCormack & Cotter, 2013). In the context of this study, psychological distress acts as a mediator between workplace stressors and the intention to quit (Baquero, 2023). Workers may interpret quitting as the only viable coping strategy when they perceive their work environment as unmanageable and their mental well-being as compromised. This decision reflects the outcome of coping described in the model, where leaving the organization becomes an effort to escape an overwhelming situation (Alphy et al., 2023).

This study also highlights the importance of psychological flexibility as a moderating factor, which aligns with the model’s emphasis on coping mechanisms. Psychological flexibility enhances an individual’s ability to adjust their responses to stressors, stay focused on their long-term values, and reframe challenges in a more adaptive way (Dawson & Golijani-Moghaddam, 2020). Psychological flexibility, a core component of mental well-being, encompasses several key dimensions—most notably emotional regulation, cognitive defusion, acceptance, present-moment awareness, self-as-context, and committed action or goal orientation—which collectively enable individuals to adapt effectively to the shifting situational demands. Emotional regulation allows individuals to manage intense or negative emotions without becoming overwhelmed, while goal orientation ensures sustained motivation and purposeful action even in the face of obstacles. These dimensions play a crucial moderating role in buffering the effects of stressors by fostering adaptive coping strategies; for example, individuals high in emotional regulation are better equipped to reframe stress-inducing events and reduce their emotional reactivity, whereas those with strong goal orientation can maintain their focus on long-term objectives, thereby minimizing the disruptive impact of short-term stress (Godbee & Kangas, 2020; Niven, 2023). Empirical studies support these assertions, showing that greater psychological flexibility is associated with lower levels of psychological distress and higher resilience under pressure. This adaptive capacity makes psychological flexibility a critical moderating factor that mitigates the negative consequences of both acute and chronic stressors (Kroska et al., 2020; Tindle et al., 2022; Chen et al., 2022). Male hospitality and tourism workers with higher psychological flexibility are better equipped to appraise stressors as manageable and to adopt positive coping strategies, reducing their psychological distress and lowering their intention to quit. In contrast, workers with lower psychological flexibility may adopt rigid coping approaches, viewing quitting as the only solution to escape their stress (Baquero, 2023; Khairy et al., 2023).

2.2. The Effect of Workplace Stressors on the Intention to Quit

Workplace stressors play a critical role in shaping employees’ intention to quit, particularly in demanding industries such as hospitality and tourism. These stressors, which include excessive workloads, lack of role clarity, interpersonal conflicts, and inadequate resources, create a challenging work environment that can overwhelm employees (El-Sherbeeny et al., 2023; Kusluvan, 2003). When workers perceive these stressors as persistent and unmanageable, they begin to feel dissatisfied with their jobs and disconnected from their organizations (Maslach & Leiter, 2022). This dissatisfaction serves as a primary driver of turnover intentions, as employees seek relief from the stress-laden environment by considering alternative employment opportunities (Aliane et al., 2023). One of the most significant pathways through which workplace stressors influence the intention to quit is through their psychological impact (Park et al., 2017). The persistent exposure to stressors often leads to emotional exhaustion, mental fatigue, and burnout, particularly in high-stress roles within hospitality and tourism (Yoo, 2023; El-Sherbeeny et al., 2024).

Employees who are emotionally depleted struggle to maintain their productivity and engagement, and the workplace begins to feel like a source of strain rather than a space for growth. The constant demands of dealing with difficult customers, long hours, and unpredictable schedules further exacerbate these effects, making quitting an appealing solution to escape from the cycle of stress (Maslach & Leiter, 2022; Al-Romeedy, 2019). Workplace stressors also undermine employees’ perception of organizational support and fairness. When employees feel that their concerns about excessive workloads or toxic workplace dynamics are ignored or that their efforts are not adequately recognized, their trust in the organization diminishes (Zhang et al., 2014; Agina et al., 2023). A lack of managerial responsiveness to employee needs fosters feelings of alienation and resentment. In such scenarios, employees may perceive quitting as the only way to regain a sense of control over their well-being and professional lives. This breakdown in the employee–organization relationship significantly contributes to turnover intentions (Bailey et al., 2017; Zaki & Al-Romeedy, 2018). Hence, the following hypothesis is adopted:

H1. 

Workplace stressors positively affect the intention to quit.

2.3. The Effect of Workplace Stressors on Psychological Distress

Workplace stressors have a profound and direct effect on psychological distress, significantly influencing employees’ mental and emotional well-being. These stressors, such as excessive workloads, role ambiguity, interpersonal conflicts, and lack of resources, create a challenging environment that demands constant adaptation (Fordjour et al., 2020). When employees perceive these demands as exceeding their capacity to cope, it triggers the feelings of anxiety, frustration, and helplessness. Over time, the cumulative impact of these stressors heightens the psychological distress, leaving employees vulnerable to emotional and cognitive strain that affects their overall functioning (Khairy et al., 2023).

A key mechanism through which workplace stressors induce psychological distress is their persistence and intensity. The chronic exposure to high levels of stress creates a state of emotional exhaustion, where employees feel drained and unable to recover. This condition is particularly prevalent in industries such as hospitality and tourism, where the fast-paced and unpredictable work environments amplify the effects of stressors (Sonnentag & Fritz, 2015; Maslach & Leiter, 2016). The employees in such settings often experience a constant sense of being overwhelmed, leading to irritability, difficulty concentrating, and a pervasive sense of unease. These emotional reactions are the hallmarks of psychological distress, directly linked to the unrelenting demands of their work environment (Van Heugten, 2011; Agina et al., 2023). Interpersonal stressors, such as conflicts with colleagues or a lack of support from supervisors, further exacerbate the psychological distress (Somaraju et al., 2022).

When employees face strained workplace relationships, it undermines their sense of belonging and trust within the organization (Schein & Schein, 2018). This social disconnection compounds the emotional burden of stressors, as employees may feel isolated and unsupported in their efforts to manage challenges. The result is an intensification of distress, characterized by feelings of loneliness, resentment, and diminished morale, which further erodes their ability to perform and cope effectively (El-Sherbeeny et al., 2023). So, the following hypothesis is adopted:

H2. 

Workplace stressors positively affect psychological distress.

2.4. The Effect of Psychological Distress Positively Affects the Intention to Quit

Psychological distress has a strong positive effect on employees’ intention to quit, as it significantly undermines their mental well-being and job satisfaction (Hussain et al., 2020). When employees experience psychological distress, characterized by the feelings of anxiety, frustration, and emotional exhaustion, they often perceive their work environment as a primary source of their discomfort (Emam & Abdel Majeed, 2024; Al-Romeedy, 2019). This association creates a desire to escape the distressing conditions, making quitting the job an increasingly appealing option. The emotional toll of distress reduces employees’ capacity to engage with their work, fostering disconnection and dissatisfaction that ultimately influence their decision to leave (Giao et al., 2020; Aliane et al., 2023).

One of the ways in which psychological distress drives the intention to quit is through its impact on job satisfaction. Distressed employees often find it difficult to derive meaning or fulfillment from their work, as their focus shifts from achieving goals to merely coping with their emotional strain. Over time, this dissatisfaction grows, leading employees to view their current role as incompatible with their personal and professional needs (Xue et al., 2022; Ross, 2017). For example, in industries such as hospitality and tourism, where emotional labor is a constant demand, psychological distress exacerbates the feelings of being overwhelmed and undervalued, further intensifying the desire to resign (Khairy et al., 2023).

Additionally, psychological distress impairs employees’ ability to maintain positive workplace relationships, which can influence their intention to quit (Hebles et al., 2022). Distressed employees may become less communicative, more irritable, or less effective in resolving conflicts, leading to strained interactions with colleagues and supervisors (Hagemeister & Volmer, 2018). These deteriorating relationships can leave employees feeling isolated and unsupported in the workplace. This social disconnection reinforces their perception of the work environment as a source of harm rather than support, pushing them closer to the decision to leave (Alphy et al., 2023). Therefore, the following hypothesis is suggested:

H3. 

Psychological distress positively affects the intention to quit.

2.5. The Mediating Role of Psychological Distress in the Link Between Workplace Stressors and the Intention to Quit

Psychological distress plays a critical mediating role in the relationship between workplace stressors and employees’ intention to quit by acting as the psychological mechanism that connects the external pressures of stressors to the internal decision-making process regarding turnover. Workplace stressors, such as excessive workloads, role ambiguity, and interpersonal conflicts, create an environment that overwhelms employees and triggers psychological distress (Agina et al., 2023). This distress, characterized by emotional exhaustion, anxiety, and frustration, emerges as a direct consequence of these stressors and significantly shapes how employees perceive their work environment and evaluate their options, including leaving their job (Maslach & Leiter, 2016; Zaki & Al-Romeedy, 2018). Employees exposed to persistent stressors are likely to experience heightened distress, which undermines their ability to find satisfaction or meaning in their work (El-Sherbeeny et al., 2023). This distress erodes their motivation and commitment, leading them to view the workplace as a source of harm rather than a place of growth or stability (Leiter, 2013). In this way, psychological distress serves as the pathway through which workplace stressors negatively influence an employee’s emotional and cognitive connection to their job, driving their intention to quit (Harmsen et al., 2018; Shaukat et al., 2017). Distressed employees are also less likely to view stressors as manageable or temporary and more likely to feel overwhelmed and incapable of meeting job demands (Abdelrahman & Emam, 2022). This diminished coping ability intensifies the feelings of helplessness and dissatisfaction, further reinforcing the link between workplace stressors and the decision to leave. As a result, psychological distress becomes a crucial factor that bridges the external pressures of stressors and the behavioral outcome of turnover intentions (Nazari & Alizadeh Oghyanous, 2021; Emam & Abdel Majeed, 2024; Aliane et al., 2023). Accordingly, the following hypothesis is developed:

H4. 

Psychological distress mediates the link between workplace stressors and the intention to quit.

2.6. The Moderating Role of Psychological Flexibility in the Link Between Workplace Stressors and Psychological Distress

Psychological flexibility plays a critical moderating role in the relationship between workplace stressors and psychological distress by influencing how employees perceive and respond to stress-inducing situations (Haldorai et al., 2023; Balducci et al., 2024).

Psychological distress affects how employees perceive their ability to cope with workplace challenges (Giorgi et al., 2015). When overwhelmed by distress, employees may lose confidence in their skills and feel incapable of meeting organizational demands (Drapeau et al., 2012). This perception amplifies the feelings of dissatisfaction and triggers a survival response, where quitting becomes a rational option to escape the stressor-laden environment. Furthermore, unresolved psychological distress often impacts the interpersonal relationships at work, exacerbating the feelings of isolation and alienation, which further contribute to the intention to quit. In many cases, employees believe that leaving their current position is the only way to restore their mental health and regain control over their lives (Zaki & Al-Romeedy, 2018).

As a personal resource, psychological flexibility allows individuals to adapt their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to effectively manage workplace demands, even in the presence of significant stressors (Fuchs et al., 2023). Employees with high psychological flexibility are better equipped to handle challenges without becoming overwhelmed, as they can reframe stressors, accept difficult emotions, and maintain their focus on their values and goals. This ability helps to buffer the impact of workplace stressors on psychological distress (Zaki & Al-Romeedy, 2018). Furthermore, psychological flexibility mitigates the effect of workplace stressors on distress by enhancing emotional regulation (Russo et al., 2024). Employees with greater flexibility are more adept at recognizing and accepting their emotions without letting them dictate their actions (Emam & Abdel Majeed, 2024; Agina et al., 2023). For instance, in a high-stress environment such as hospitality and tourism, flexible employees may acknowledge the feelings of frustration or anxiety without allowing these emotions to interfere with their ability to perform or engage with others. This emotional resilience acts as a protective factor, reducing the likelihood that workplace stressors will lead to anxiety, frustration, or burnout (Mohd-Shamsudin et al., 2024; Al-Romeedy, 2019).

On the other hand, employees with low psychological flexibility are more vulnerable to workplace stressors because they are less able to adapt to changing demands or regulate their emotional responses (Atkins & Parker, 2012). These individuals are more likely to perceive stressors as overwhelming, leading to heightened psychological distress (Ross, 2017). They may struggle to separate their emotional reactions from their actions, which can exacerbate the feelings of anxiety and helplessness. Thus, the moderating role of psychological flexibility highlights its importance as a key factor that determines whether workplace stressors translate into psychological distress or are effectively managed (Abdelrahman & Emam, 2022). Hence, the following hypothesis is postulated:

H5. 

Psychological flexibility moderates the link between workplace stressors and psychological distress.

2.7. The Moderating Role of Psychological Flexibility in the Link Between Workplace Stressors and the Intention to Quit

Psychological flexibility plays a crucial moderating role in the relationship between workplace stressors and employees’ intention to quit by influencing how employees process and respond to the challenges that they face. Workplace stressors, such as excessive workloads, role ambiguity, and interpersonal conflicts, often lead to frustration and dissatisfaction, increasing the likelihood of turnover intentions (Mansour & Tremblay, 2018; Emam & Abdel Majeed, 2024). However, employees with high psychological flexibility are better equipped to manage these stressors effectively, reducing their impact on the decision to quit. By enabling individuals to adapt their thinking and behavior to align with long-term goals, psychological flexibility helps mitigate the negative effects of stressors on employees’ attitudes toward their jobs and organizations (Kashdan & Rottenberg, 2010; Khairy et al., 2023).

Additionally, psychological flexibility enhances emotional regulation, which plays a pivotal role in moderating turnover intentions. Employees with high flexibility are better able to manage negative emotions, such as frustration or anxiety, that often accompany workplace stressors (Shao et al., 2022; Bakker & de Vries, 2021). Instead of allowing these emotions to dominate their decision making, they focus on their broader goals and values, such as career development or financial stability. This ability to maintain perspective despite stressors decreases the likelihood of impulsive decisions to quit, even in challenging work environments (Greenhaus et al., 2009; Al-Romeedy, 2019).

In contrast, employees with low psychological flexibility are more susceptible to the negative effects of workplace stressors, as they are less able to adapt or manage their emotional responses. These individuals may perceive stressors as insurmountable and experience heightened dissatisfaction, leading to stronger turnover intentions (Ramaci et al., 2019; Emam & Abdel Majeed, 2024). Without the capacity to reframe or cope with challenges, the connection between workplace stressors and the decision to quit becomes more direct and pronounced. Thus, psychological flexibility serves as a protective factor, moderating the relationship by reducing the extent to which workplace stressors influence employees’ decisions to leave their jobs (McCormack & Cotter, 2013; El-Sherbeeny et al., 2023). So, the following hypothesis is suggested:

H6. 

Psychological flexibility moderates the link between workplace stressors and the intention to quit.

The theoretical framework of the study is illustrated below in Figure 1.

3. Methods

3.1. Tools Used

A quantitative approach was used to collect the data. A structured survey was conducted to examine the impact of workplace stressors on male hospitality workers’ intention to quit, focusing on the roles of psychological distress and psychological flexibility. All the variables were measured using the established scales adapted from previous research and assessed on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree).

The workplace stressors were measured using a four-item scale adapted from Mahmood et al. (2010). The intention to quit was evaluated using a six-item scale from Baquero (2022) and Treglown et al. (2018). Psychological distress was assessed using a six-item scale based on Massé et al. (1998) and Baquero (2023), and psychological flexibility was measured using a six-item scale developed by Gloster et al. (2021). A complete list of these measurement items is provided in

Table 1. Item loadings, Cronbach alpha, CR, AVE, and VIFs.

Construct	Indicators	Loading	CR	CA	AVE	VIF
Workplace Stressors	I find it difficult to do my job because of conflicting demands	0.768	0.907	0.863	0.710	1.206
	My supervisor is unlikely to help me out with a work problem	0.855
	I feel uncertain about the exact scope of my duties and responsibilities at work	0.891
	Personality conflicts or strained relationships interfere with my ability to get quality work done	0.852
Intention to Quit	I often think about quitting my job	0.815	0.885	0.843	0.567	1.506
	There is an excessive workload and time pressure at my workplace	0.706
	There are no prospects for growth and promotion at work	0.862
	I get paid less than I work for my company	0.846
	There are no or poor training and development prospects in my company	0.648
	I keep on finding reasons to quit my current job	0.599
Psychological Distress	I have difficulties facing my problems	0.820	0.941	0.925	0.727	1.511
	Lately, I have no patience	0.820
	I am currently aggressive about everything and nothing	0.880
	I feel ill at ease with myself	0.904
	I feel like throwing everything to the wind, quitting	0.868
	I am now less receptive to the ideas and opinions of others	0.820
Psychological Flexibility	Even if I am somewhere else with my thoughts, I can focus on what’s going on in important moments	0.803	0.849	0.784	0.506	1.118
	If need be, I can let unpleasant thoughts and experiences happen without having to get rid of them immediately	0.604
	I can look at hindering thoughts from a distance without letting them control me	0.762
	Even if thoughts and experiences are confusing me, I can notice something like a steady core inside of me	0.717
	I determine what’s important for me and decide what I want to use my energy for	0.641
	I engage thoroughly in things that are important, useful, or meaningful to me	0.725

.

The study utilized a self-administered questionnaire. The original English version was translated into Arabic by a bilingual expert and then back-translated into English by a second bilingual professional to ensure the accuracy. The original and back-translated versions were compared for consistency. Since the translations aligned, the Arabic version of the questionnaire was used with participants to enhance the clarity and improve the response rates. In other words, this study adopted the back-translation technique to ensure linguistic and conceptual equivalence between the English and Arabic versions. This process involved two independent bilingual experts—one translated the original English questionnaire into Arabic, and the second translated it back into English. Discrepancies were reviewed and resolved collaboratively, taking into account both cultural nuances and phraseological appropriateness relevant to the Egyptian hospitality context. Additionally, we have now specified that a pilot test was conducted with a small sample of 30 hotel employees. This pre-test helped assess the clarity, comprehension, and cultural relevance of the Arabic items, and minor wording adjustments were made accordingly to enhance readability and face validity.

3.2. Data Collection Process

The study model was assessed using data from full-time employees at five-star hotels in Egypt, chosen for their prominent role within the country’s hospitality sector. These hotels are ideal for the study due to the high-pressure nature of their work environments, characterized by demanding customer expectations, long working hours, and emotionally taxing tasks. These conditions expose employees to significant stressors, increasing the likelihood of psychological distress and a higher intention to quit. The hospitality industry’s high turnover rate further supports the exploration of factors influencing employees’ decision to leave. Additionally, studying male employees in this context provides valuable insights into how gender-specific stressors and coping mechanisms affect psychological flexibility, thereby contributing to a deeper understanding of the relationship between workplace stress, distress, and turnover intentions.

In Egypt, male dominance in the workplace remains prevalent, with women participating in the labor force at relatively low rates of 20% to 25% (Nazier & Ramadan, 2016). Sociocultural factors such as poor working conditions, limited opportunities, exploitation, violence, and harassment intensify these challenges for workers, particularly in the hospitality sector.

A quantitative research design was used, with a survey methodology targeting employees who had at least one year of experience at five-star hotels in Greater Cairo. The one-year experience requirement ensured that the participants had sufficient exposure to the work environment to provide meaningful insights. According to Morrison (1993), employees typically gain a good understanding of an organization’s culture within six months, making this duration appropriate for the study.

Data were collected from employees across 22 five-star hotels in Greater Cairo during January and February 2025 in their premises. In 2022, the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities listed 30 five-star hotels in this region. A judgmental sampling approach was employed to select the hotels, while a convenience sampling method was used to gather responses from voluntarily participating employees. The survey was administered after obtaining verbal consent from hotel management, with employee participation remaining voluntary and anonymous to ensure confidentiality.

In total, 334 valid responses were collected, surpassing the recommended minimum sample size of 220 respondents (Hair et al., 2010), based on a 1:10 ratio of variables to respondents. This sample size was deemed sufficient for the analysis.

3.3. Data Analysis

The study used partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) for the data analysis, a widely adopted method for both confirmatory and exploratory research. PLS-SEM is particularly effective for theory validation and model extension, making it ideal for analyzing complex relationships (Hair et al., 2014). This technique is commonly used in strategic and management studies, including the research in hospitality and tourism (Ali et al., 2018). PLS-SEM is particularly suitable for exploratory or theory-building research, as is the case in this study, which investigates complex relationships involving multiple latent constructs, including mediation and moderation effects. It is well suited for non-normally distributed data and moderated sample sizes, which aligns with the characteristics of this study dataset. This method is validated by the guidelines provided by Cepeda-Carrion et al. (2019). Data processing was performed using WarpPLS statistical software, version 7.0.

To assess the non-response bias, t-tests were conducted comparing the early and late responses (p > 0.05), revealing no significant differences, which indicates that non-response bias was not a concern. Additionally, to evaluate the common method variance (CMV), the study employed Harman’s single-factor test and principal component analysis. The results showed that no single factor explained more than 50% of the total variance, suggesting that CMV was not a significant issue in this study.

4. Results

4.1. Participants’ Profile

Table 2. Participants’ profiles (N = 334).

		Frequency	Percent
Age	18–35	125	37.43
	36–55	200	59.88
	Over 55	9	2.69
Education	High school or institute	20	5.99
	Bachelor’s degree	274	82.04
	Postgraduate studies	40	11.98
Marital status	Single	129	38.62
	Married	199	59.58
	Divorced	6	1.80
Tenure	1–3 years	99	29.64
	4–6 years	89	26.65
	>6 years	146	43.71

presents the demographic and work-related characteristics of the 334 participants. Most of the participants were aged 36–55 years old (59.88%) and held a bachelor’s degree (82.04%). The majority were married (59.58%), with a smaller proportion being single (38.62%) and divorced (1.80%). Regarding their tenure, most of the participants had been in their current roles for more than 6 years (43.71%), followed by those with 1–3 years (29.64%) and 4–6 years (26.65%).

4.2. Measurement Model

The evaluation of the four-factor model, which includes workplace stressors (WSs), psychological distress (PD), the intention to quit (ITQ), and psychological flexibility (PF), was conducted using Kock’s (2021) ten fit indices. All the criteria used for the assessment were found to be supported (see Appendix A). All the indices met their respective acceptance thresholds, confirming the model’s robustness and validity across multiple dimensions.

Table 1 reveals that all the constructs showed acceptable reliability and convergent validity, as indicated by their composite reliability (CR), Cronbach’s alpha (CA) “above 0.70”, and average variance extracted (AVE) values “above 0.50”. The variance inflation factors (VIF) were within acceptable limits “below the threshold of 3.3”, suggesting that multicollinearity was not a significant issue. This suggests that the measurement model is valid and reliable.

Table 3. Discriminant validity results—Fornell–Larcker criterion.

	WSs	PD	ITQ	PF
Workplace Stressors (WSs)	0.843	0.379	0.312	0.084
Psychological Distress (PD)	0.379	0.853	0.531	0.178
Intention to Quit (ITQ)	0.312	0.531	0.753	0.275
Psychological Flexibility (PF)	0.084	0.178	0.275	0.711

presents the discriminant validity results using the Fornell–Larcker criterion, which compares the square root of the AVE for each construct with the correlations between constructs. Discriminant validity is established when the square root of a construct’s AVE is greater than its correlation with other constructs. The results confirmed that all the constructs showed sufficient discriminant validity because the square roots of their AVE values were greater than their correlations with other constructs. This suggests that each construct is distinct and measures a unique aspect of the model.

Table 4. HTMT for validity.

HTMT Ratios (Good If <0.90, Best If <0.85)	WSs	PD	ITQ	PF
Workplace Stressors (WSs)
Psychological Distress (PD)	0.424
Intention to Quit (ITQ)	0.359	0.585
Psychological Flexibility (PF)	0.135	0.238	0.348
p-Values (One-Tailed) for HTMT Ratios (Good If <0.05)	WSs	PD	ITQ	PF
Workplace Stressors (WSs)
Psychological Distress (PD)	<0.001
Intention to Quit (ITQ)	<0.001	<0.001
Psychological Flexibility (PF)	<0.001	<0.001	<0.001

presents the heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) ratios and corresponding p-values, which are used to assess the discriminant validity between the constructs. A ratio below 0.85 is considered excellent, and values below 0.90 are acceptable for demonstrating the discriminant validity. The p-values for the HTMT ratios should be less than 0.05 to confirm that the constructs are distinct. The HTMT ratios for all the construct pairs were well below the thresholds of 0.90 (and most were below 0.85), indicating that the constructs were sufficiently distinct. The p-values confirmed the significance of these ratios, strengthening the evidence for discriminant validity across the constructs.

4.3. Structural Model and Results of Testing the Hypotheses

Figure 2 and

Table 5. Direct effects.

Hs	Relationship	Direct Effect (β)	Sig.	t-Value	Decision
H1	WS → ITQ	0.15	p < 0.01	2.867	Supported
H2	WS → PD	0.36	p < 0.01	6.887	Supported
H3	PD → ITQ	0.46	p < 0.01	8.927	Supported

provide a summary of the direct and moderating effects among the hypothesized relationships involving WSs, PD, ITQ, and PF. As depicted in Figure 2, WSs are positively correlated with both ITQ (β = 0.15, p < 0.01) and PD (β = 0.36, p < 0.01), indicating that WSs contribute to an increase in both ITQ and PD, thereby supporting Hypotheses H1 and H2.

Additionally, PD is positively correlated with ITQ (β = 0.46, p < 0.01), suggesting that higher levels of PD lead to an increase in ITQ, thus supporting Hypothesis H3.

Furthermore, the relationships between WSs and PD, as well as between PD and ITQ, are moderated by PF. Specifically, PF dampens the positive correlation between WSs and PD (β = −0.14, p < 0.01) and between PD and ITQ (β = −0.10, p = 0.04), providing support for Hypotheses H5 and H6.

Furthermore, the mediation effect in this study was assessed using the method developed by Preacher and Hayes (2008), a widely recognized statistical technique for evaluating mediation. This approach effectively demonstrated how psychological distress (PD) mediates the relationship between workplace stressors (WSs) and the intention to quit (ITQ). The results presented in

Table 6. Bootstrapped confidence interval of model mediation analysis.

Hypo.		Path a	Path b	Indirect Effect	SE	t-Value	Bootstrapped Confidence Interval		Mediation
							95% LL	95% UL
H4	WSs → PD → ITQ	0.360	0.460	0.166	0.038	4.358	0.091	0.240	Yes

support Hypothesis H4, confirming that PD significantly mediates the relationship between WSs and ITQ. The mediation effect is considered significant, as the bootstrapped confidence interval does not include zero.

According to Cohen’s (1988) guidelines, effect sizes (f²) are classified as follows: values of f² ≥ 0.02 indicate a small effect, f² ≥ 0.15 represent a medium effect, and f² ≥ 0.35 signify a large effect. In reference to

Table 7. Effect sizes (f²) for total effects.

Effect Sizes (f2) for Total Effects	WSs	PD	PF × PD
ITQ	0.052	0.242	0.021
Effect Sizes (f2) for Total Effects	WSs	PF × WSs
PD	0.137	0.028

, workplace stressors (WSs) have a small effect on the intention to quit (ITQ) (f² = 0.052), while psychological distress (PD) exhibits a medium effect on ITQ (f² = 0.242). The interaction between psychological flexibility (PF) and PD also has a small effect on ITQ (f² = 0.021). Conversely, WSs demonstrate a medium effect on PD (f² = 0.137), while the interaction between PF and WSs on PD shows a small effect (f² = 0.028).

5. Discussion

This study examined the relationship between workplace stressors and employees’ intention to quit, with a focus on the mediating role of psychological distress and the moderating role of psychological flexibility. The findings confirm that workplace stressors significantly increase the likelihood of turnover intentions among the male hospitality workers in Egypt. This supports the earlier research indicating that high job demands, limited support, and role ambiguity diminish employees’ sense of job security and satisfaction, prompting them to consider exit as a coping strategy (Jasiński & Derbis, 2022; Ren et al., 2024). In hospitality settings, where emotional labor is constant and customer service expectations are high, stressors such as understaffing, inflexible schedules, and lack of managerial support often leave employees feeling overwhelmed. These conditions erode the motivation and organizational trust, making departure a more attractive option than adaptation (Majumder & Dey, 2024). Importantly, this study adds to the existing literature by contextualizing this dynamic within a specific gendered and cultural environment—male workers in Egyptian five-star hotels—whose economic responsibilities and societal expectations may intensify the perceived pressure to endure stressful conditions silently.

Workplace stressors were also found to have a significant positive impact on psychological distress. This aligns with the studies by Lorente et al. (2021) and Lin et al. (2021), which emphasize the psychological cost of unstable or unpredictable work environments. In this study, unclear job responsibilities, inconsistent management policies, and emotional demands were identified as the key drivers of distress. These elements interfere with employees’ sense of control and predictability, which are essential to psychological safety. When individuals cannot anticipate workplace demands or access adequate support, they are more likely to experience chronic stress, anxiety, and emotional fatigue (Caldwell et al., 2019). These findings reinforce the importance of viewing workplace stressors not just as operational challenges, but as contributors to psychological strain that can negatively influence performance, engagement, and health outcomes.

Moreover, the results demonstrate that psychological distress itself significantly increases employees’ intention to quit. This supports the conclusions of Labrague and de Los Santos (2021), who found that distressed employees often lack the emotional and cognitive resources to manage further challenges, making resignation a perceived necessity rather than a choice. High levels of distress impair decision making, reduce resilience, and weaken the problem-solving capacity, leading employees to withdraw from work responsibilities and eventually the organization itself. This relationship emphasizes the need to address not only the stressors themselves but also the psychological states that they produce, as these are the direct catalysts for turnover behaviors (Sahoo et al., 2025; Heman et al., 2024).

The study further confirmed that psychological distress serves as a mediator in the relationship between workplace stressors and the intention to quit. This finding advances our understanding of how stressors translate into behavioral outcomes. It suggests that it is not necessarily the stressors in isolation that lead to turnover intentions, but rather the psychological toll that they take on employees. This mediating role is critical to intervention design, as it directs attention to managing emotional responses to stress rather than solely modifying the external job conditions. Previous research (St-Jean et al., 2023; Allisey et al., 2014) has discussed this mechanism conceptually, but this study provides empirical support for it in a culturally specific context. Understanding this pathway allows organizations to target mental health support and emotional resilience building as part of the retention strategies (Eisenberg et al., 2016; Lonne et al., 2020; Agarwal et al., 2020).

Another key contribution of this study lies in its exploration of psychological flexibility as a moderator. The results show that employees with higher psychological flexibility were better able to manage stressors without experiencing debilitating distress or developing intentions to quit. This supports the view that psychological flexibility acts as a buffer, enabling employees to reinterpret stressors in a less threatening light and to remain engaged despite the challenges (Boss et al., 2016; Slowiak & Jay, 2023). For instance, employees with greater flexibility may see an increased workload as a temporary challenge or an opportunity for growth, rather than a sign of organizational failure. This mindset reduces emotional reactivity and promotes proactive coping. These findings underscore the potential of psychological flexibility training—such as mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) or acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT)—as a viable organizational tool for mitigating stress impacts and enhancing employee retention (Noon & Morrell, 2017).

5.1. Theoretical Implications

The present study advances the theoretical understanding of workplace stress by empirically demonstrating the significant impact of workplace stressors on both psychological distress and the intention to quit among male hospitality and tourism workers. Within the framework of the transactional model of stress and coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), these findings illustrate the dual-stage cognitive appraisal process. In the primary appraisal stage, stressors such as long working hours, customer-related tensions, or inconsistent scheduling are frequently interpreted as threats to well-being. These perceived threats initiate the stress response, leading to heightened psychological distress. The secondary appraisal—where the individual assesses their coping options—may result in resignation being perceived as the most feasible or protective response. Thus, the findings support the model’s core premise that the individual interpretations of environmental demands, rather than the demands themselves, determine the psychological and behavioral outcomes.

The results also confirm the direct impact of psychological distress on the intention to quit, reinforcing its role as a key mediator within the transactional framework. Psychological distress in this study reflects a cluster of cognitive and emotional responses, including anxiety, irritability, emotional exhaustion, and a diminished sense of efficacy. These distress components play a central role in deteriorating the individual’s capacity to engage with their work, thereby fostering withdrawal behaviors such as disengagement or resignation. By clarifying the mediating role of distress, this study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of how environmental demands are internalized and transformed into turnover intentions. Rather than presenting a linear stimulus–response pattern, the model is extended to emphasize the emotional toll as the mechanism linking stressors to exit behaviors.

In addition, the study identifies psychological flexibility as a key moderating factor that influences both the experience of distress and the formation of quitting intentions. The moderating role of psychological flexibility enhances the transactional model by introducing a variable that alters the intensity of the stress response during both appraisal stages. Employees with high psychological flexibility are more capable of cognitive reframing—perceiving stressors as manageable challenges rather than insurmountable threats—and of aligning their actions with long-term values despite emotional discomfort. This capacity weakens the relationship between stressors and distress, and subsequently, between distress and the intention to quit. Conversely, those with low flexibility are more likely to engage in experiential avoidance, intensifying their stress responses and hastening their withdrawal. These findings extend the theoretical model by positioning psychological flexibility as a resilience-enhancing mechanism within the broader stress-coping framework.

Crucially, the study’s focus on the male employees within the Egyptian hospitality sector offers a culturally and gender-specific perspective that is underrepresented in the existing stress literature. In patriarchal societies like Egypt, men are socially conditioned to suppress their emotional vulnerability and fulfill economic provider roles. These societal expectations may influence the appraisal process by discouraging the acknowledgment of stress and limiting the perceived acceptability of help seeking or emotional disclosure. As a result, male employees may internalize workplace stressors more acutely, exacerbating psychological strain while simultaneously resisting traditional coping outlets. The interaction between cultural norms, gender identity, and occupational stress adds a distinct theoretical dimension, emphasizing the need to consider socio-demographic moderators when applying the transactional model across contexts.

Furthermore, this study moves beyond generalized observations by illustrating how stressors interact with specific psychological mechanisms. For instance, emotionally demanding tasks, when combined with a limited recovery time and lack of autonomy, contribute to emotional exhaustion—one of the most toxic components of distress in service-based industries. This detailed mapping of how individual stressor types contribute to different dimensions of distress strengthens the theoretical precision of stress models in occupational contexts.

Overall, the study enhances the transactional model of stress and coping by articulating how individual difference variables (i.e., psychological flexibility), emotional mechanisms (i.e., distress), and contextual moderators (i.e., gender roles and socio-cultural expectations) jointly influence the behavioral outcomes like the intention to quit. These findings not only affirm the existing theoretical assumptions but also expand them by emphasizing the interaction mechanisms, emotional pathways, and cultural specificity. This positions the model as more adaptable to real-world workplace dynamics, particularly in high-pressure, culturally nuanced environments like hospitality and tourism in the Middle East.

5.2. Practical Implications

The findings of this study offer practical, evidence-based guidance for hospitality organizations seeking to improve employee well-being, reduce the turnover, and create psychologically healthy work environments. To mitigate the workplace stressors, hotel managers should begin by identifying the most pressing operational stressors—such as understaffing during peak seasons, rigid scheduling, and ambiguous job roles—and prioritize them for intervention. While the complete elimination of stressors may not be realistic, especially in customer-facing environments with seasonal fluctuations, structured adjustments can be made. For example, implementing rotational scheduling to ensure rest periods during high-demand times, clearly outlining roles and responsibilities in task manuals, and allocating resources based on real-time demand metrics can help distribute workloads more equitably and transparently.

A key contribution of this study is the emphasis on psychological flexibility as a protective factor against stress and turnover. Organizations should integrate flexibility-enhancing programs into their employee development strategies. Specifically, mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) programs can be adapted to hotel operations through short, guided breathing or grounding exercises at shift briefings, while acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT)-informed modules can be included in staff training by focusing on value alignment, perspective-taking, and adaptive-coping techniques. These interventions should be scheduled during low-traffic hours or embedded into existing training timelines to reduce resistance and avoid disrupting the service flow. Digital wellness platforms, accessible via mobile devices, can supplement in-person sessions and allow flexible, self-paced engagement—ideal for hospitality employees with irregular work schedules.

To ensure that these interventions are relevant and inclusive, organizations must also consider gender-specific perceptions of stress. Male workers, particularly in patriarchal cultures like Egypt, may be less likely to openly express distress or seek help. Thus, training programs should be designed to be practical, discreet, and goal-oriented to match male employees’ preferred coping styles. For example, framing psychological flexibility training as a performance optimization tool rather than a mental health support initiative may increase male participation. Supervisors should be trained to recognize distress cues that are not verbally communicated and to initiate private, supportive conversations with staff when needed.

Addressing psychological distress directly is also essential. Establishing access to confidential mental health resources—such as Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs), onsite mental health ambassadors, and partnerships with mental health professionals—can normalize help seeking and reduce stigma. Hospitality organizations should also hold regular stress and well-being check-ins, particularly during periods of high demand (e.g., holidays, tourist seasons). Providing a designated quiet zone or wellness space in large hotels where employees can take short mental breaks can also reduce acute emotional strain.

In developing retention strategies, hotels should focus on high-impact, cost-effective practices that reinforce employee value. Recognition systems—ranging from daily feedback by supervisors to monthly rewards for resilience or teamwork—can increase morale and commitment. Clear internal mobility paths and skill development opportunities tailored to hospitality roles (e.g., customer conflict management, multilingual communication, or digital booking systems) can help retain ambitious employees and reduce frustration due to career stagnation. Where feasible, offering micro-flexibility—such as shift swapping or time-off banks—can help employees better manage their personal and professional responsibilities.

Also, given the industry’s high level of customer interaction and irregular work schedules, hotels can introduce staggered shifts, job sharing, or compressed workweeks to accommodate employees’ personal needs and prevent burnout. Additionally, establishing team-based support mechanisms—such as regular check-ins, mentoring, or rotating roles—can foster a collaborative environment where employees feel supported, valued, and less isolated during demanding periods.

These findings also carry policy implications for the hospitality sector. Industry regulators and associations should collaborate with hotel groups to establish evidence-based stress management standards, requiring periodic psychological risk assessments and structured well-being programs. Certification programs (e.g., “WellWork Certified Hotels”) can incentivize compliance and create competitive advantages for businesses that prioritize employee well-being. Tailored guidelines addressing gender equity, psychological safety, and flexibility training in culturally specific contexts can further align public policy with the on-the-ground industry realities.

5.3. Limitations and Future Research

One limitation of this study is its exclusive focus on the male hospitality and tourism workers from five-star hotels in Egypt, which restricts the generalizability of the findings to other demographic groups such as female employees, mixed-gender teams, and staff operating in different organizational and cultural environments. In particular, cultural norms in Egypt—where men are typically expected to act as primary providers and show emotional endurance—may significantly influence how workplace stress is appraised and managed, potentially affecting both psychological distress and flexibility. Future research should therefore examine how gender roles and broader social expectations shape the stress responses and coping behaviors across different cultural contexts. Additionally, the current model does not incorporate key organizational-level variables such as job satisfaction, perceived organizational support, and leadership style, which are likely to moderate or mediate the effects of stressors. Integrating these variables into future models could provide a more comprehensive understanding of how the structural and interpersonal workplace dynamics contribute to psychological outcomes. The study also did not assess whether interventions like mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) or acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) could strengthen psychological flexibility and buffer the effects of stressors—an area that future applied research should explore within hospitality settings. These interventions should be tested for their adaptability to the fast-paced, service-oriented nature of the industry. Moreover, generational differences in stress perception were not addressed. Employees from different age groups may vary in their attitudes toward mental health, coping strategies, and receptiveness to psychological interventions. Future studies should investigate how generational factors interact with stress appraisal and flexibility to develop age-appropriate and culturally sensitive intervention strategies for diverse workforces in the hospitality and tourism sector.

Also, while the study demonstrated the moderating role of psychological flexibility, it did not investigate interventions aimed at enhancing flexibility or its potential variability across individuals. Psychological flexibility is a skill that can be developed through training programs, but the study did not address whether such interventions could mitigate the observed relationships. Future research should explore the effectiveness of interventions, such as mindfulness training or acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), in increasing psychological flexibility and reducing the negative impacts of workplace stressors.

Furthermore, the study did not account for the generational differences in the perception and response to workplace stressors, which may also limit the generalizability of the findings. Different age cohorts—such as Baby Boomers, Generation X, Millennials, and Generation Z—often display varying attitudes toward work, resilience, and psychological stress. For instance, younger employees may be more open to discussing mental health and adopting flexibility-enhancing practices, while older generations might rely on traditional coping strategies or perceive stress differently due to long-term career experiences. These generational nuances could influence both the experience of stress and the effectiveness of psychological flexibility as a moderating factor. Future research should consider age-related or generational variables to explore how stressors are perceived across demographic groups, which could inform more targeted and age-sensitive interventions within the hospitality and tourism sectors.