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Article

Phase Angle Is Related with Visceral Obesity in Young Adults

by
Izabela Mandryk
1,*,
Joanna Bonior
1 and
Magdalena Koszarska
2
1
The Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Applied Sciences in Nowy Sącz, Kościuszki 2G, 33-300 Nowy Sącz, Poland
2
Institute of Genetics and Animal Biotechnology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 05-552 Jastrzębiec, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Obesities 2025, 5(3), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/obesities5030061
Submission received: 14 July 2025 / Revised: 12 August 2025 / Accepted: 13 August 2025 / Published: 15 August 2025
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Abstract

Obesity is a global problem, increasing interest in adipose tissue (AT) biology. One of the techniques for analyzing visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and phase angle (PhA) is bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). PhA is considered an indicator of cell integrity and health and can be a prognostic marker in diseases and clinical conditions. The aim of the study was to assess the nutritional status and level of visceral fat area (VFA) to investigate the association between phase angle (PhA) and content of visceral adipose tissue in young adults. Our cohort consisted of 292 young adults (18–25), both sexes. Body composition was performed by the inBody 770 analyzer. We confirmed the relationship between PhA and gender (female vs. male: 5.3 vs. 6.5; p < 0.001) and BMI (female vs. male: 22.56 kg/m2 vs. 23.78 kg/m2; p = 0.013). A total of 20.2% of examined students had a VFA of more than 100 cm2 (Visceral Obesity, VO). We demonstrated a dependence between VFA and PhA value (PhA = 5.4 (VFA > 100 cm2) vs. PhA = 5.7 (VFA < 100 cm2), p = 0.003). Students with VO and normal BMI had a significantly lower PhA than those with VO and BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2 (p = 0.021). PhA may be a useful indicator for assessing nutritional status and physiological differences related to gender, BMI, and visceral obesity in young adults.

1. Introduction

Over recent years, obesity has become a huge problem on a global scale, not only in health but also in economic terms, imposing significant costs on healthcare systems all over the world [1]. The latest reports on obesity indicate an alarming increase in the number of people affected by this problem. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 1 billion people worldwide are obese, including—650 million adults, 340 million adolescents and 39 million children, and this number is still increasing [2]. The main factors contributing to the growing number of obesity cases are the following: unhealthy diet, low level of physical activity, not enough good quality sleep, stress, medications, genetics and environment.
The global obesity epidemic has enhanced interest in Adipose Tissue (AT) biology. This heterogeneous tissue consists of cells called adipocytes, as well as preadipocytes, leukocytes, monocytes, fibroblasts, macrophages, endothelial cells and stromal vascular fraction (stem cells called SVF) [3]. Excess fat tissue is anatomically distributed in different proportions in the body of obese people. The amount and distribution of adipose tissue in the human body is influenced by physiological, psychosocial and clinical factors [4], including gender, age, race, ethnicity, genotype, diet, physical activity, hormone levels and medications [5,6,7]. In addition to its passive function, AT has been recognized as an endocrine organ. Its products include numerous hormones such as: leptin, estrogen, resistin and the cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha [8]. There are two types of fat tissue in the body, making up total body fat (TBF): subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) and visceral adipose tissue (VAT). They are known for their different metabolic activities. SAT is fatty tissue located between the skin and muscle, and VAT is present in the chest, abdomen and pelvis, mainly in the mesentery and omentum, and it drains directly through the portal circulation to the liver [4,9]. Although these tissue types are important and are factors that increase the risk of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, visceral obesity (VO) has received particular attention due to its association with various medical pathologies and remains more strongly associated with these risk factors [10]. VAT is an endocrine active tissue—it releases various bioactive molecules and hormones such as adiponectin, leptin, tumor necrosis factor, resistin and interleukin 6 (IL-6). The authors point out the particular importance of adiponectin due to its protective anti-angiogenic effect [11]. Reduced adiponectin concentration is associated with type 2 diabetes (T2D), elevated glucose levels, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and some cancers, for example: breast, colon, endometrium, prostate or kidney cancer [11,12,13,14,15]. VO (abdominal obesity; central obesity) is associated with metabolic abnormalities that increase the risk of T2D and also determines a cardiovascular risk profile and increases the susceptibility to ischemic heart disease and arterial hypertension [15,16]. It is known that in obese patients with significant accumulation of visceral fat (VF) tissue, the insulinemic and glycemic response is higher during the oral glucose challenge [17]. VAT is associated with impaired glucose and lipid metabolism and insulin resistance [15,18]. Studies show that increased levels of visceral adipose tissue predispose one to colon cancer [19], breast cancer [20] and prostate cancer [21]. It has also been proven that high levels of VF are associated with more frequent infections, longer hospital stays and increased mortality [22]. Since visceral obesity is associated with metabolic disorders and chronic diseases, the quantitative assessment of VO is important to assess the potential risk of developing these pathologies, as well as to ensure accurate prognoses [23].
Many techniques are currently available to measure obesity. The basic indicator for diagnosing overweight and obesity is body mass index (BMI), calculated as the weight divided by the square of height. The World Health Organization (WHO) states that the norm for people over 18 years of age is 19–25 kg/m2, and overweight is diagnosed when the value exceeds 25 kg/m2. However, obesity is indicated by an index value exceeding 30 kg/m2 [24]. The higher BMI value, the higher risk of total mortality. Kitahara et al. [25] demonstrated that III class obesity (over 40 kg/m2) is strongly related to premature deaths caused by cancers, diabetes and heart disease. However, based on the BMI index, we are unable to determine the fat content in the body, much less distinguish the subcutaneous and VF tissue compartments. In addition, the BMI does not consider body fat distribution, which is an important limitation since there are suggestions that the metabolic complications of obesity are more closely related to visceral adiposity than overall adiposity [26]. Despite the strong correlation between general and abdominal obesity, there are people suffering from general obesity who have not been diagnosed with abdominal obesity. The opposite situation may occur for abdominal obesity in the absence of overall obesity based on BMI. The prevalence of cardio-metabolic disease and CVD in people with “normal weight obesity” leads to misclassification and underdiagnoses of CVD risk in clinical practice, particularly among patients who have excess body fat but not obesity classified by BMI [27,28].
Another method used to measure body fat is bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). It is used to examine the body composition of a population, including determining the amount of fat tissue [kg] in the body, as well as providing on the total volume of water [L], protein [kg], minerals [kg] and skeletal muscle mass [kg]. Globally, bioimpedance techniques are recognized due to their non-invasiveness, safety, existence, portability and basic cost compared to other clinically available methods. These are also discussed in the body composition inventory [29,30]. Medical body composition analyzers are able to detect VF content. BIA is a widely used method for assessing body composition, particularly in the context of measuring visceral fat. Although computed tomography (CT) has traditionally been the gold standard for measuring VF, numerous studies have confirmed that BIA can be a useful tool for assessing VF, particularly in clinical and screening settings [31,32]. The study showed a correlation between the VF measured by BIA and CT [33]. In addition, correlation analyses showed that there were significant correlations between anthropometric measurements and BIA [34]. These results suggest that BIA is a useful tool for assessing VF.
Determining the amount of VF tissue is important because its excess increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases, and abdominal obesity is already one of the main criteria for diagnosing metabolic syndrome in patients. The VF result may be presented differently, depending on the analyzer model—either as a VF index or as its area (Visceral Fat Area; VFA) in square centimeters (m2). The BIA method is useful in classifying the distribution of fat tissue for the diagnosis of abdominal obesity. It has been shown that normal VFA content is <100 cm2, and high VFA content is ≥100 cm2. Numerous clinical studies across various populations have consistently demonstrated that a VFA greater than 100 cm2 is associated with a significantly higher prevalence of metabolic abnormalities. This threshold is now widely accepted as an indicator of visceral obesity. One of the most influential studies in this context is the Japanese VACATION-J study, which evaluated over 12,000 adults. It found that the mean number of cardiovascular risk factors increased significantly when the VFA exceeded 100 cm2, regardless of age, gender or BMI [35]. In Western populations, similar associations have been observed. For example, in a study conducted among U.S. women, a VFA ≥ 106 cm2 was significantly associated with dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and glucose intolerance—hallmarks of metabolic syndrome [36]. This value was based on cross-sectional studies that show that rejection values correspond to 100 cm2 of external VFA. For good health, it is recommended to keep the VFA below 100 cm2 [37].
Another parameter determined by BIA is the phase angle (PhA). PhA is obtained from raw BIA results [38], which is a rapid, safe and non-invasive method for estimating body composition in populations of various ages and clinical conditions [39]. Its value is a result of the body’s resistance to alternating current generated by electrolytes and water. PhA consists of two elements: resistance (R) and reactance (Xc). PhA (°) is expressed as arctangent (Xc/R) × (180°/π) and correlates with the distribution of intra- and extracellular fluids and the condition and integrity of the cell membrane. PhA is considered an indicator of both water distributions (i.e., extracellular water (ECW) and total body water (TBW) [40]. The phase angle is a unique biomarker differentiating the ECW index in adipose tissue [41]. The authors indicate that PhA is used to determine the ratio of body cell mass (BCM) to fat-free body mass (FFM) [38]. Phase angle is considered an indicator of cell integrity and health. Its use as a prognostic marker in diseases such as HIV, cancer and other comorbidities has been demonstrated [39]. Studies have shown a correlation between PhA and abdominal obesity in adults (26–59 years old) with cardiological problems [42]. However, the most recent review highlights the potential of PhA as a noninvasive tool for cardiovascular risk assessment. Nevertheless, the inconsistent findings suggest the need for further research, taking into account potential confounding variables and involving larger samples across diverse populations [43]. PhA was associated with muscle strength and was higher in athletes and lower in obese people with sarcopenia [44,45]. Additionally, it is an indicator of nutritional status [46] and is associated with markers of metabolic function such as insulin resistance, blood glucose levels and leptin in obese women [47]. Low PhA values are associated with impaired quality of life and poor prognosis in various chronic diseases [39]. In obesity, the measure of resistance (R) relating to tissue compartments containing fluid and electrolytes (e.g., soft tissue mass) is greater and results in reduced PhA [30]. The results suggest that PhA may be a useful tool in health diagnosis of the physical fitness status of the obese population [48]. Obesity is the result of an exacerbated increase in adipose tissue, which causes chronic inflammation. An increase in inflammatory markers can induce cell damage and cell death due to apoptosis or necrosis [49]. In this sense, PhA may be a promising health indicator to be implemented in people with obesity and more specifically in VO (Figure 1).
The aim of the study was to assess the nutritional status and level of VF tissue area to investigate the association between phase angle (PhA) and content of visceral adipose tissue in young adults.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Design and Setting

This study was carried out on a group of students of the University of Applied Sciences in Nowy Sacz (Nowy Sacz, Poland). The study was approved by the Bioethics Committee of the District Medical Chamber in Cracow, Poland (no. 174/KBL/OIL/2023). The aim of the study was clearly explained to all the participants and written informed consent was obtained. The research is carried out as part of research project No. DNR.501-3/23 financed by the University of Applied Sciences in Nowy Sacz.

2.2. Population Study

The study included 292 students from various faculties of the University of Applied Sciences in Nowy Sącz (Nowy Sącz, Poland). The participants were selected using a random sampling method. The study involved healthy students without any chronic diseases. All 292 participants were included in the study, as none met the exclusion criteria, which comprised pregnancy, the presence of an implanted electronic medical device or a diagnosis of epilepsy.

2.3. Body Composition

Body composition was determined using a BIA, which was performed by a single investigator with a bioelectrical impedance analyzer inBody 770 (InBody, Białystok, Poland). The device has international quality, medical and safety certificates (ISO 9001:2015; ISO 13485:2016; Electrical Safety IEC60601-1 and IEC60601-1-2; Medical certificate EN60601-1-2 and EN60601-1). The analyzer uses an 8-point tetrapolar touch electrode system (2 left foot electrodes, 2 right foot electrodes, 2 left hand electrodes, 2 right hand electrodes); frequency-impedance (1 kHz, 5 kHz, 50 kHz, 250 kHz, 500 kHz, 1000 kHz), frequency-reactance (5 kHz, 50 kHz, 250 kHz) and current 80 μA.
Students volunteered for body composition analysis, they were informed about the exclusion criteria from the study and they were fasting. All students included in the analysis consented to the application by signing an informed consent form. During the body composition analysis, each person was dressed in light clothing and did not have any jewelry or metal accessories. During the analysis, each student stood barefoot and motionless for about 1 min. Body composition was estimated by the means of bioelectrical and anthropometric measurements. The data were obtained using software provided by the manufacturer. In order to implement the assumed topic of the work, the obtained data was used: body weight, body mass index (BMI), percentage of fatty substance, the level of VF and phase angle (PhA). The platform scale uses a single load cell to measure body mass which, with a measure of stature, calculates body mass index (BMI). Body fat percentage (PBF) is determined using a summation of segmental lean analysis to determine total lean body mass, fat mass and ultimately the proportion of fat to total weight mass fraction. The estimate of VF area (VFA) is displayed from regression equations (proprietor) stated by the manufacturer to be derived from comparison of VF to computerized tomography scans to impedance in the torso region using segmental lean analysis of the torso [50]. The procedure was performed by the same person, using the same equipment for each subject, according to a standard protocol. This was to avoid discrepancies between the results.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

All the analyses were performed using Statistica 14.1.0.4 (StatSoft, Kraków, Poland). To assess the normality, the Shapiro–Wilk test was used. Student’s t-test and Chi-squared test analyses were performed for comparing two groups of data. Differences were considered statistically significant at p < 0.05.

3. Results

The study included 292 students of both sexes (202 females and 90 males), aged from 18 to 25 years (Mean 20, 83 ± SD 1, 64).

3.1. Basic Anthropometric Measurements and Body Fat Content in the Study Group

Basic anthropometric measurements and body composition parameters regarding fat content in the students’ bodies were analyzed depending on gender. Statistically significant differences between genders were found and are presented in Table 1.

3.2. BMI Index in the Study Group

BMI was calculated for each student based on height and weight. The average BMI of female students was 22.56 kg/m2 (SD ± 4.22) and that of male students was 23.78 kg/m2 (SD ± 3.02). The differences between male and female students were statistically significant (p = 0.013). Among all respondents, 193 students had a normal BMI (66.1%) and were overweight (n = 59) and obese (n = 14), 20.2% and 4.8% respectively. The remaining 8.9% of students were underweight (n = 26). Statistically significant differences between male and female students were found (p = 0.002) (Table 2).

3.3. Visceral Obesity (VO) in the Study Group

Body composition analysis determined the area of VF (VFT; cm2) in the study group, indicating abdominal obesity. Among all respondents, 20.2% students (n = 59) had a VFA above 100 cm2. The average area of VF in female students was significantly higher than in male students (80.74 vs. 52.30 cm2 respectively) (p < 0.001) (Figure 2).
Statistically significant differences were found in the incidence of abdominal obesity among students depending on gender (p = 0.00131) (Figure 3).

3.4. Phase Angle in the Study Group

The average PhA value of students’ cells was 5.66 (SD ± 0.80; min = 3.9; max = 7.8) and was significantly higher in male students compared to female students (6.5 vs. 5.3, respectively) (p < 0.001). The graphical distribution of phase angle values depending on gender is shown in Figure 4.
The analysis showed that students with a BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2 had a lower PhA values than students with a normal BMI index (18.5–24.9 kg/m2). However, no statistical significance was observed between these groups (5.5 vs. 5.6, respectively; p = 0.525).

3.5. PhA Angle and VO

The study results indicate that 20.2% of students regardless of sex (n = 59) have visceral obesity (VFA ≥ 100 cm2). Among those students, the average PhA value was 5.4 and was significantly lower than in the group of students with a normal level of visceral adipose tissue (PhA = 5.7; n = 233) (p = 0.003) (Figure 5).
The analysis of the phase angle values was performed in students with abdominal obesity, whose BMI indicated obesity (≥30 kg/m2), and in those whose BMI indicated normal body weight (18.5–24.9 kg/m2). It has been shown that students with abdominal obesity but normal BMI (n = 13) have a much lower phase angle than obese students with BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2 (n = 14). Statistically significant differences were found (p = 0.021) (Figure 6).

4. Discussion

Obesity continues to increase in the most developed countries. It rises the risk of premature death from comorbidities [51]. The main cause of this global epidemic is the current lifestyle combined with genetic susceptibility [52]. PhA is known to play a role in obesity and health status [53]. In screening studies, differences in PhA are associated with gender, age, health status and BMI [54]. In the examined group of students, we also confirmed the relationship between PhA and gender (female vs. male: 5.3 vs. 6.5; p < 0.001) and BMI (female vs. male: 22.56 kg/m2 vs. 23.78 kg/m2; p = 0.013). Our study included healthy young adults aged 18–25, therefore we could not verify the association between PhA and age or health status in our cohort. In this research, 20.2% of the subjects had a VFA of more than 100 cm2. Visceral fat constitutes ~10–15% of total body fat [55,56]. On the one hand, it is a lipolytic depot of free fatty acids (FFA), which are released into the liver, but in the case of its excess it can contribute to a liver steatosis and its insulin resistance [55,56,57,58]. Insulin resistance of the liver occurs as a result of FFA overload and increased hepatic gluconeogenesis [59]. Increase level of visceral fat causes also non-communicable diseases, e.g., dyslipidemia [60], hypertension [61,62] or T2D [63,64] in both children and adolescents [52,65]. Several groups have suggested that visceral fat may have a significantly greater impact on abnormal metabolic profiles than does upper body subcutaneous fat [65,66,67,68]. In contrast, Abate et al. [69] suggested that subcutaneous truncal obesity is more influential in determining insulin resistance than is intraperitoneal fat. In our study, women had significantly higher levels of VF than men (80.74 vs. 52.30 cm2; p < 0.001). Variations between the sexes may be due to differences in the hormonal system [70] and also due to sex differences in body composition [71]. Women have more fat mass, while men have more muscle mass [72]. This can manifest itself in susceptibility to various diseases, which differ depending on gender [73]. The differences in visceral fat levels in women, in the case of our sample, may be due to gender differences not only in body composition but also in fat accumulation. The distribution of fat has a greater impact on the occurrence of disease states (e.g., cardiometabolic) than the total excess of fat [71,74,75,76]. An interesting observation was also reported by Malhotra et al. [77] and Schwab et al. [78] in their studies, who noted that VO contributes to the development of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) by reducing chest compliance and airway obstruction. OSA has also been shown to increase VF levels by reducing sleep time [79]. Insufficient sleep duration and poor quality are associated with hormonal changes, including high cortisol, high ghrelin, low leptin sensitivity, and low melatonin. Each of these abnormalities contributes to increased appetite, decreased energy expenditure, and consequently visceral fat accumulation, which in turn leads to increased body weight and obesity [80,81,82]. It has recently been found that sleep duration (>8 h) affects the occurrence of VO, but depending on gender, it can have a negative or positive effect [83].
Another observation in our study was a strong dependence between VO and PhA value (PhA = 5.4 (VFA > 100 cm2) vs. PhA = 5.7 (VFA < 100 cm2), p = 0.003). The results obtained by Victoria D. Ferraz et al. [42] in 2024 showed that PhA was independently and inversely associated with high levels of VF. Results from the adult group further support that low PhA may predict cardio-metabolic risk. As is well known, obesity is associated not only with an increase in adipose tissue, but also with a deterioration in muscle condition, due to metabolic changes in their structure [84]. BMI can be a primary and baseline indicator of overweight or obesity, although it does not provide any information about muscle or lean mass or nutritional status. Phase angle seems to be a better solution in this case. Based on the phase angle, we are able to determine the hydration status and cell mass as well as muscle strength [30,45]. Interestingly, in our cohort students with VO but normal BMI had a significantly lower PhA than those with VO and BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2 (p = 0.021). Zhang J. et al. [85] obtained similar results in their study. They investigated the relationship between PhA and BMI. The obtained results showed that the highest PhA values were found in people with obesity class III. Similar results were shown in Germany [86]. The above-mentioned phenomenon can be explained in several ways; first, by soft tissue hydration. In the case of obese people (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2) there is often a pathological increase in the amount of fluid vs. non-obese people. The second thing is membrane permeability. It is known that the higher the PhA, the better the condition of cell membranes, in contrast to lower PhA values indicating serious damage or cell death [38,86]. Another important factor in obesity is the increased level of inflammatory mediators, which also damages cell membranes and can even lead to cell death [49,87]. And the last factor is body cell volume (BCV): in overweight people, it has a higher value. The higher the BCV, the lower the resistance to the flow of physiological fluids, and as a result, the lower the PhA [38,85]. Importantly, Kamrani et al. [88] also demonstrated that PhA and ECW/TBW—as indicators of inflammation and cellular integrity—are significantly associated with hematological parameters such as Hgb, Hct and WBC.
Although PhA seems to be a good alternative to other less accurate methods of body composition assessment, there are still many aspects that need to be improved. The improvement of PhA should take place mainly in terms of diagnostic and prognostic differentiation of patients. It is important to standardize measurement techniques, which differ depending on the equipment used, due to the individual phenotypic approach to the patient. The undoubted advantage of measuring PhA is its ease and non-invasiveness. It seems that adding PhA as a diagnostic factor to other tests would be of great benefit to the patient.

5. Conclusions

In our cohort of young adults, PhA varied by gender, obesity and BMI. These relationships can be used to assess nutritional status and muscle quality. Further large-scale studies are necessary to confirm the usefulness of PhA for analyzing lifestyle behaviors in young adults. Our studies also demonstrate that identifying high-risk individuals with obesity is important, and the PhA parameter can be used to evaluate physiological differences resulting from gender, BMI and visceral obesity.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, I.M. and M.K.; methodology, I.M.; software, I.M.; validation, I.M. and M.K.; formal analysis, I.M. and J.B.; investigation, I.M.; resources, I.M.; data curation, I.M.; writing—original draft preparation, I.M. and M.K.; writing—review and editing, J.B.; visualization, I.M. and J.B.; supervision, I.M.; project administration, I.M.; funding acquisition, I.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The research was carried out as part of research project No. DNR.501-3/23 financed by the University of Applied Sciences in Nowy Sacz.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was approved by Bioethics Committee of the District Medical Chamber in Cracow (no. 174/KBL/OIL/2023).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Acknowledgments

During the preparation of this manuscript/study, the authors used Microsoft PowerPoint for the purposes of Figure 1.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Obesities 05 00061 g001
Figure 1. The relationship between obesity, adipocytokine secretion, inflammation, phase angle value and disease risk. VFA: Visceral Fat Area; PhA: Phase Angle; Th1: Th1 Lymphocytes; Th17: Th17 Lymphocytes; CD8+: CD8+ Lymphocytes; M1: M1 Macrophages; MS: Mast Cells; N: Neutrophils; DC: Dendritic Cells; M-A ITC: Mucosal-Associated Invariant T Cells; T1/3 ILC: Type 1/3 Innate Lymphoid Cells.
Figure 1. The relationship between obesity, adipocytokine secretion, inflammation, phase angle value and disease risk. VFA: Visceral Fat Area; PhA: Phase Angle; Th1: Th1 Lymphocytes; Th17: Th17 Lymphocytes; CD8+: CD8+ Lymphocytes; M1: M1 Macrophages; MS: Mast Cells; N: Neutrophils; DC: Dendritic Cells; M-A ITC: Mucosal-Associated Invariant T Cells; T1/3 ILC: Type 1/3 Innate Lymphoid Cells.
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Figure 2. VFA depending on sex.
Figure 2. VFA depending on sex.
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Figure 3. Differences in VAT in studied group depending on sex.
Figure 3. Differences in VAT in studied group depending on sex.
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Figure 4. Phase Angle (PhA) value depending on sex.
Figure 4. Phase Angle (PhA) value depending on sex.
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Figure 5. PhA value depending on VO.
Figure 5. PhA value depending on VO.
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Figure 6. Phase angle value in students with abdominal obesity depending on BMI index.
Figure 6. Phase angle value in students with abdominal obesity depending on BMI index.
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Table 1. Statistically significant differences in anthropometric and body composition selected parameters of the studied group depending on sex.
Table 1. Statistically significant differences in anthropometric and body composition selected parameters of the studied group depending on sex.
CharacteristicsTotal
[Mean ± SD]		Male
[Mean ± SD]		Female
[Mean ± SD]		p Value
Height [cm]169.8 ± 9.4180.4 ± 6.6165.0 ± 5.9<0.001
Weight [kg]66.5 ± 14.477.6 ± 12.061.5 ± 12.5<0.001
Fat percentage [%]24.3 ± 9.416.0 ± 6.328.0 ± 8.0<0.001
Fat mass [kg]16.4 ± 8.512.7 ± 6.318.1 ± 8.8<0.001
Fat-free mass [kg]50.1 ± 12.064.9 ± 9.043.5 ± 5.5<0.001
Table 2. Distribution of nutritional status.
Table 2. Distribution of nutritional status.
BMI [kg/m2]Male [n = 90]Female [n = 202]Total [n = 292]
n%n%n%
<18.544.442210.89268.90
18.5–25.05763.3313667.3319366.10
25–29.92831.113115.355920.21
≥30.011.11136.44144.79
p = 0.002
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Mandryk, I.; Bonior, J.; Koszarska, M. Phase Angle Is Related with Visceral Obesity in Young Adults. Obesities 2025, 5, 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/obesities5030061

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Mandryk I, Bonior J, Koszarska M. Phase Angle Is Related with Visceral Obesity in Young Adults. Obesities. 2025; 5(3):61. https://doi.org/10.3390/obesities5030061

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Mandryk, Izabela, Joanna Bonior, and Magdalena Koszarska. 2025. "Phase Angle Is Related with Visceral Obesity in Young Adults" Obesities 5, no. 3: 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/obesities5030061

APA Style

Mandryk, I., Bonior, J., & Koszarska, M. (2025). Phase Angle Is Related with Visceral Obesity in Young Adults. Obesities, 5(3), 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/obesities5030061

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