Cross-Cultural Competence in Tourism and Hospitality: A Case Study of Quintana Roo, Mexico

Abstract

Economic growth, especially in emerging economies, has altered the composition of international tourism. It is therefore essential to possess the skills necessary to understand the influence of culture on human behaviour, thereby enabling an appropriate response to the traveller. This research aims to develop a tool for identifying openness, flexibility, awareness, and intercultural preparedness. It focuses on the metacognitive and cognitive aspects of cultural intelligence that shape the development of empathy in customer service staff in hotels in Quintana Roo. The variables were validated and incorporated into a quantitative study using multivariate analysis and inferential statistics. A sample of 77 questionnaires was analysed using simple random sampling under a proportional design. Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA) was employed as a discriminatory technique to identify the most significant independent variables. These were subsequently entered as regressors into ordinal logistic regression (OLR), along with age and work experience, in order to estimate the probabilities associated with each level of the dependent variable. The results indicated that age had minimal influence on the metacognitive and cognitive variables, whereas years of experience among tourism staff exerted a significant effect.

1. Introduction

The emergence of new niche markets in the tourism sector has been shaped by global economic dynamics, necessitating a bespoke approach that accounts for the cultural characteristics of these diverse markets. Consequently, professionals in the sector must possess the necessary skills and training to effectively interact with a wide range of travellers. In this context, the ability to identify and understand the needs of others through empathy is essential. This requires training that offers a framework for understanding the values, behaviours, and customs of different cultures, while fostering the ability to respond appropriately in culturally diverse contexts.

The ability to communicate effectively and avoid conflict depends on applying critical resources—such as skills and competencies—to adapt and build connections with individuals from different cultural backgrounds [1]. It is therefore imperative to understand why some individuals demonstrate greater effectiveness when interacting and working with people from different backgrounds [2,3,4].

This research highlights the factors contributing to the development of metacognitive and cognitive skills among staff working in international tourism in Quintana Roo. The site’s defining feature is its high volume of visitors from diverse geographical and cultural origins, making it a relevant setting for this study. To this end, the research employs a model informed by the seminal work of Hofstede et al. [5] on the impact of cultural variation on service adaptation to customer needs.

1.1. Literature Review

In the contemporary business context, organisations interact with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds, which can lead to challenges in interpersonal relationships [4]. Underestimating the importance of cultural variation can result in a misinterpretation of cultural homogenisation, a concept that arises from globalisation [6]. In tourism, cultural influences have been shown to significantly shape attitudes and behaviours during service delivery [2,7].

A direct correlation has been demonstrated between effectiveness in multicultural communication and specific attributes [8]. The ability to provide timely information about cultural patterns is essential. It is also important to show respect and interest during interactions, as noted by Carballal et al. [6] and Agreda Sigindioy [9], as this fosters an understanding of cultural diversity and enhances communication. The notion of individual differences has been conceptualised as a distinct form of intelligence. In this sense, cultural intelligence emerges as a particularly relevant component in light of global openness and increased multicultural interaction, enabling the early identification of effectiveness in cross-cultural contexts.

1.1.1. Intercultural Empathy

Empathy, understood as the capacity to understand another individual’s perspective and emotions [10], is a theoretical construct approached from a multidimensional perspective. This approach posits that the ability to respond to others is contingent on both affective and cognitive dimensions. The first component is affective or empathic concern, defined as feelings of worry or sadness in response to another’s needs. This is inherently linked to the emotional experience of identifying with others’ emotions. The second component is cognitive, referring to the ability to understand another’s perspective and to identify with their experiences [11]. In the context of intercultural relations, Chen and Starosta [12] conceptualise empathy as the ability to adopt the perspective of an individual from a different cultural background, thereby generating congruent thoughts and emotions during interaction. This capacity is also characterised by the ability to distinguish, in a timely manner, between self and other [13]. It is worth noting that empathy from a cultural perspective has received limited scholarly attention [14,15].

Intercultural empathy (IE) is defined as the ability to form emotional connections with individuals from different cultural backgrounds [16]. Ridley and Lingle [17] presented general empathy as a factor in understanding and accepting other cultures, defined as the tendency to comprehend individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds in a manner that is both equitable and inclusive [18]. Within the IE paradigm, the term refers specifically to the capacity to connect emotionally with people from different cultural backgrounds [16].

1.1.2. Cultural Intelligence

Cultural intelligence (CQ) is defined as the body of knowledge related to the economic, political, legal, and social systems, as well as the established practices and norms, that shape the way of life within a given culture [19]. It also refers to an individual’s ability to establish effective relationships in cross-cultural contexts [20]. Introduced in 2002, the concept has attracted considerable academic interest, particularly regarding its workplace applications. Researchers have highlighted its potential to mitigate the cross-cultural challenges faced by employees [4]. Cultural intelligence has been shown to support the effective adaptation of staff, enabling them to integrate into unfamiliar cultural environments and build positive relationships with people from diverse cultural backgrounds [20,21]. In this sense, employees are expected to develop cultural intelligence to function effectively in culturally diverse environments [22], prompting research on its measurement, development, and predictive capacity [23].

CQ has been found to be indicative of individual performance differences in multicultural settings [20,24]. Higher CQ is associated with reduced culture shock, facilitating smoother adaptation to unfamiliar cultural contexts [25]. In light of these challenges, global organisations must prioritise the selection, development, and enhancement of employees’ cultural intelligence [4]. Individuals with high CQ demonstrate a greater ability to fulfil their responsibilities in multicultural environments, understand the complexities inherent in diverse cultural contexts, and respond with adaptability and flexibility [26].

Earley [27] argued that intelligence must transcend the boundaries of cognitive skills. The proposed multidimensional model of cultural intelligence includes factors such as metacognition, cognition, motivation, and behaviour. In essence, cultural intelligence encompasses the competencies required to interact effectively with people from diverse cultural backgrounds across various sectors and industries, including tourism.

1.1.3. Metacognitive and Cognitive Cultural Intelligence

The study by Ang et al. [2] revealed that individuals with high metacognitive cultural intelligence exhibit a highly structured cognitive process, which facilitates learning and understanding in diverse cultural contexts. This is characterised by the ability to comprehend such contexts with ease and to rely less on rigid cultural assumptions. This shift in perspective prompts reflections on strategies that could be employed to achieve more successful cultural interactions. It is imperative to acknowledge that throughout this learning process, several activities are expected: individuals engage in careful planning when interacting with another culture, meticulously monitor their understanding, and methodically evaluate their progress [28]. Consequently, the metacognitive aspect enables the perception of diverse cultural scenarios without rigidity, contributing specifically by allowing individuals to assess and adjust their own strategies to improve intercultural interactions [19].

As postulated by Rockstuhl and Dyne [29], individuals with high metacognitive cultural intelligence are less likely to form superficial and misguided biases about ethnic differences. They possess an awareness of their intercultural knowledge, which they perpetually review through encounters, reflect on analytically, and apply during interactions with individuals from other cultures [4,30]. This approach recognises the importance of the recall process, which integrates prior knowledge with past and present intercultural experiences. This helps mitigate possible cultural challenges and misinterpretations. A higher capacity in this area involves planning, monitoring, and revising mental models of cultural norms, requiring advanced cognitive strategies and deep information processing [29].

The cognitive dimension of cultural intelligence refers to the acquisition of habits, practices, beliefs, and customs from both one’s own culture and others. These are acquired through education or practical experience. As posited by Earley and Ang [31], Ang et al. [2], Ang and Van Dyne [28], and Van Dyne et al. [32], cultural knowledge can be understood as both universal and particular, enabling the observation of norms, actions, and customs across cultures. Ott and Michailova [23] defined it as the body of data and knowledge related to cultures, norms, beliefs, and practices.

This cognitive component of cultural intelligence enables individuals to develop broad cultural knowledge and the skills needed to function effectively in intercultural settings [31], while also reflecting individual cultural awareness [28]. The formation of such knowledge is influenced by the principles of cultural behaviour (e.g., greetings, rituals) and by understanding derived from observing the actions of individuals within a given culture [33].

Individuals with exceptional levels of cognitive cultural intelligence exhibit an extraordinary ability to discern both the similarities and differences that characterise diverse cultural contexts [30] and to establish effective relationships with people from diverse cultural backgrounds [34]. As demonstrated by Carballal et al. [6], cultural knowledge is important in fostering interest in and respect for diverse cultures.

Metacognition, defined as the ability to reflect on one’s own cognitive processes [35], is a critical component in the development of intercultural skills. These capabilities, which involve identifying and recognising diverse cultural traits, are grounded in knowledge of one’s own culture and contribute to improved intercultural interaction. As Earley and Mosakowski [36] observed, the concept of ‘acquired understanding of cultural diversity’ holds significant relevance in cultural studies.

1.1.4. Intercultural Empathy, Metacognitive Intelligence, and Cognitive Intelligence in the Context of Tourism

Research suggests that metacognition in cultural domains enhances efficacy insofar as it promotes contextualised thinking. This form of thinking is characterised by a heightened sensitivity (empathy) to the idea that people’s motivations and behaviours are continually shaped by the cultural contexts in which they are embedded. Metacognition is also associated with cognitive flexibility [37], defined as the selective use of mental schemas and behavioural scripts during cultural interactions. Effective interaction with tourists from diverse cultural backgrounds requires specific competencies, including an understanding of the concept of culture and its influence on travellers’ perceptions and behaviours, as well as knowledge of appropriate responses and actions [38].

Metacognition extends beyond basic cognition, as it requires a foundation of cultural knowledge to support planning, evaluation, and adaptation in cultural interactions. In tourism, this includes recording, verifying, and updating intercultural experiences. Such processes are crucial for implementing appropriate measures that enhance efficiency and service quality. This broader dimension of cultural intelligence is essential, as it engenders outcomes that impact the development and refinement of strategies. High levels of cultural metacognition enable individuals to recognise assumptions and gaps in their cultural knowledge [2], leading to continuous self-monitoring and revision as new or contradictory experiences emerge [32].

Cultural metacognition has also been linked to increased cognitive knowledge and self-regulated mental processes such as awareness and verification. Awareness is defined as ‘the ability to comprehend cultural thinking and knowledge of oneself and others in real time’ [32]. Verification involves ‘the revision of assumptions and the adequacy of mental maps when actual experiences differ from expectations’. Overall, this metacognitive strategy supports the evaluation and renewal of cultural knowledge, enabling individuals to adapt to changing circumstances.

The components of cognitive cultural intelligence—general knowledge and cognitive contextual knowledge–integrate to provide a more profound understanding of how culture influences human behaviour. This integration facilitates the formulation of appropriate responses to cultural challenges. A high level of cognitive cultural intelligence is characterised by a comprehensive understanding of culture, awareness of its diversity, and the specific knowledge required for effective interaction in a given cultural context [20].

As demonstrated by CQ studies in the context of tourism [39], cultural intelligence positively influences tourists’ satisfaction and evaluation of the experience, highlighting the influence of CQ on customer satisfaction and productivity [40,41,42,43,44]. Research has also examined personality factors; for instance, in 2007, Young et al. [45] investigated the Interpersonal Reactivity Index. Further studies addressed service performance and quality [46], career- and service-oriented behaviour [47], and overall performance [48]. Together, this substantial body of work underpins the field.

There is a conspicuous lack of systematic studies and comprehensive analyses of cultural intelligence and empathy in Latin America. Notable exceptions include the studies by Navas Cueva et al. [49] (‘Cultural Intelligence in the Workplace: A Study Among Ecuadorian Frontline Employees’); Arjona Granados [50] (‘The Incidence of Cultural Intelligence Factors on Intercultural Empathy in the Tourism Sector in Mexico’); Arjona Granados [51] (‘The Application of Cultural Intelligence and its Impact on Service Quality in Hotels in Mexico’); and Arjona Granados [13] (‘The Incidence of Intercultural Empathy in Men and Women Working in Travel Agencies in Nuevo León, Mexico’).

Effective interaction with tourists from diverse cultural backgrounds requires understanding how culture shapes travellers’ perceptions, behaviours, and appropriate responses [38]. Cultural intelligence mitigates employees’ perceptions of cultural differences with foreign guests, reducing the discomfort and stress such differences may cause [21]. This effect stems from the capacity of cultural intelligence to foster understanding among people from diverse cultural backgrounds [52]. Research findings reported in Thailand likewise highlight the relevance of CQ to turnover intention in cross-cultural tourism contexts, underscoring the value of staff CQ training for lowering staff turnover in the hotel sector [53].

This study focuses on cultural differences and their impact on service quality. It has been hypothesised that a paucity of cultural intelligence and adaptation may engender a discrepancy in the calibre of service delivery, culminating in suboptimal performance and diminished customer satisfaction. The fundamental problem identified in this study stems from the omission of cultural requirements in service provision in response to changing international tourism, which consequently leads to traveller dissatisfaction. In the domain of research, there is a paucity of knowledge concerning the factors that give rise to discrepancies in the effectiveness of services when implemented in culturally diverse contexts [2]. To achieve this objective, it is essential to possess the necessary competencies through training, thereby facilitating an understanding of cultural behavioural patterns and ensuring the provision of services in accordance with these patterns. A substantial body of research has focused on investigating the correlation between cultural intelligence and service delivery. Nevertheless, the relationship between cultural intelligence and intercultural empathy has not yet been investigated. In this sense, sensitivity to cultural diversity emerges as a highly relevant factor in shaping memorable interactions [54].

Our study adopts the original CQ model [2], which encompasses four elements—metacognition, cognition, motivation, and behaviour—and posits that intercultural empathy is pivotal in hotel service [13,50,55]. The integration of empathy, customer satisfaction, and loyalty [56] is predicated on the ability to be sensitive to people’s emotions and to respond appropriately to unexpected situations [57]. Empathy is a pertinent concept within the domain of tourism [58] that enhances both production and consumption. Tucker [59] emphasised the significance of empathy in tourism, conceptualising what he termed ‘empathising touristically’, whereby individuals with strong intercultural understanding strive for full empathy toward others [60]. It is therefore vital to emphasise the correlation between cultural intelligence and intercultural empathy in the context of tourism.

2. Methodology

Figure 1 presents the quantitative design of this research. In this study, intercultural empathy serves as the dependent variable representing cultural intelligence, whereas metacognition and cognition serve as the independent variables, following the works of Van Dyne et al. [32], Earley and Ang [31], Ang et al. [2], Ang and Van Dyne [28], Ang et al. [20]; Leung et al. [61], Ng et al. [62], Earley [27], Thomas and Inkson [63], Earley and Mosakowski [36], Earley et al. [64], Thomas [65], Wood and Peters [66], Livermore et al. [67], and Ang et al. [20].

2.1. Variables

The definitions, abbreviations, and indicators of the independent variables follow the work of Ang and Van Dyne [28]. The first independent variable, metacognitive cultural intelligence, is defined as executive processing during cross-cultural interactions.

Table 1. Independent variable: metacognitive cultural intelligence—subdimensions and indicators.

Subdimension	Indicators
Planning (MEPL). The ability to organize the acquisition and management of cultural information in a structured manner.	- I plan before trying to interact with people from other cultures.
	- I consider it necessary to foresee different cultural situations.
	- I endeavour to cultivate the requisite skills to engage in cross-cultural interactions in an appropriate manner.
Awareness (MECN). The capacity to perceive and differentiate between one’s own and another’s cultural attitudes in a given situation.	- I am aware of the impact of my cultural background on my interactions with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds.
	- I am aware of the importance of knowledge about other cultures.
	- I am aware of the importance of culture for a person.
	- I am able to differentiate between my own and other people’s cultural attitudes.
Monitoring (MEMO). The capacity to modify planned actions and reorient them according to contextual demands.	- I understand a culture by interacting with people from that culture.
	- I tailor my communication style to align with the cultural norms of the group with whom I am interacting.
	- I am aware of the veracity of my cultural knowledge when interacting with different cultures.

presents its subdimensions and indicators.

The second independent variable is cognitive cultural intelligence, defined as a set of universal and culture-specific cognitions that facilitate the recognition of norms, institutions, practices, and conventions across diverse cultures.

Table 2. Independent variable: cognitive cultural intelligence—subdimensions and indicators.

Subdimension	Indicators
General cultural knowledge (CNCCG). The understanding of the universal elements present in cultural development.	- I can describe the different cultural patterns that explain the behaviours of cultures.
	- I have knowledge about the influence of culture on people.
	- My knowledge of cultures enables me to avoid misunderstandings in interactions with other cultures.
Cultural knowledge (CNCCE). The understanding of the specific manner in which universal culture is expressed within a given community.	- I am aware of the ways in which culture manifests itself within a specific community.
	- I am interested in understanding the value system of a certain cultural group.
	- When necessary, I am interested in deepening my knowledge of a certain culture.

presents it subdimensions and indicators.

The dependent variable is cross-cultural empathy, also referred to as intercultural empathy (IE), defined as the capacity to understand the emotions, thoughts, and behaviours of individuals from different cultural backgrounds [68].

Table 3. Dependent variable: cross-cultural empathy—indicators.

Dependent Variable	Indicators
Cross-cultural empathy (also known as intercultural empathy) is the capacity to comprehend the emotions, thoughts, and behaviours of individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds.	- I am attentive to the emotional experiences of individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds.
	- I consider myself sensitive to subtle cultural aspects when interacting with people from other cultures.
	- I detect when people are irritated.
	- I get to know others deeply.
	- I enjoy listening to the stories of people from other cultures.
	- I detect when people are in trouble.
	- I sympathize with people from other cultures.
	- I believe I have the ability to accurately understand the feelings of people from other cultures.
	- I respect the values and ways of behaving of people from other cultures.
	- I consider myself open-minded to people from other cultures.
	- I am cordial with people from other cultures.

presents its indicators.

This study adopted an analytical approach to its delimitation by focusing on how personnel in different international tourism service areas perceive cultural metacognition (preparation, evaluation, and modification of attention), cultural cognition (acquisition of cultural knowledge), and IE. The unit of analysis is the international tourism service provider: hotel personnel in reception, sales, and reservations who interact directly with international tourists and provide goods and services in four- and five-star hotels in Cancun, Quintana Roo. According to recent data from the National Public Security System [69], Cancun Airport received the largest share of foreign tourists (43.9%), followed by Mexico City (17%), Los Cabos (10.5%), Guadalajara (10.5%), and other smaller destinations [69]. The study was conducted between July 2019 and March 2020.

The dependent variable, IE, was measured with the Multicultural Personality Questionnaire [70], the Intercultural Readiness Check [71], items from the Intercultural Sensitivity Model [12], and scales developed by Arthur JR. and Bennet JR. [68].

A five-point Likert scale—a psychometric instrument through which a respondent indicates their degree of agreement or disagreement with a statement, item, or reagent on an ordered and unidimensional scale [72]—was utilised to evaluate the responses: 5 = ‘Always’ (100%), 4 = ‘Almost always’ (75%), 3 = ‘Sometimes’ (50%), 2 = ‘Rarely’ (25%), and 1 = ‘Never’ (0). The questionnaire also collected demographic data on age, sex, education, tourism experience, municipality, and hotel rating (4 or 5 stars). The participants were invited to indicate their responses on a scale ranging from 1, representing ‘Never’, to 5, representing ‘Always’. To obtain the indices, the values were summed and weighted according to the number of indicators and then classified using the same five-point scale.

2.1.1. Population

Within the research project, one designated first-contact person was assigned per hotel. Subjects were selected based on their presence at the reception desk during the survey period.

2.1.2. Sample Size

A pilot test involving 35 tourism professionals was conducted to verify the instrument’s reliability across different tourist centres in Mexico. The sample consisted of 4- and 5-star hotels in Cancun. Of the 84 surveys administered, 77 valid responses were obtained from personnel providing services to international tourists. The surveys were conducted during the second half of 2019.

The sample size was calculated using the following parameters: an alpha of 0.05, a confidence level of 0.10, and a population of 103 four- and five-star hotels located in the municipality of Benito Juárez, Quintana Roo. A probability of 0.5 was selected to maximize the sample size. The formula for a simple random design for proportions was applied, followed by proportional stratification based on the number of four- and five-star hotels:

$$n={\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{p}\times \widehat{q}\times N\times z_{1-\frac{\alpha }{2}}^2}{((N-1)\times B^2)+(z_{1-\frac{\alpha }{2}}^2\times (\hat{p}\times \hat{q}))}}$$

This calculation indicated that 50 hotels were required. To account for incomplete of missing responses, 60% more questionnaires were distributed. A total of 77 valid questionnaires were collected and fully analysed. Surveys exhibiting clear bias or inconsistent response patterns were excluded to preserve the integrity of the results. After administering the instruments, the sample size was recalculated using p = 0.33 (four-star hotels), reducing the requisite sample to 47, assuming the same alpha and B levels. With p = 0.33, 77 valid surveys, and an alpha of 0.05, B improved to 0.06. In the field of social sciences, the observational nature of studies necessitates greater efforts to control variability; thus, a B value of 0.10 is generally acceptable. In contrast, experimental studies typically aim for a B of 0.05 due to stronger control over covariates. In this study, the instruments were designed to achieve a confidence level of 0.05, and only three additional instruments would have sufficed to achieve this objective.

Sample representativeness was assessed by participant roles: reception (36 participants, 47%), reservations (15 participants, 20%), sales (12 participants, 15%), and operations (14 participants, 18%). However, random selection based on shift, weekday, and similar factors would have improved representativeness and reduced sampling bias.

Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha. The mean scores for metacognition, cognition, and intercultural empathy were 0.745, 0.736, and 0.733, respectively. The composite reliability scores were as follows: VIME = 0.726, VICN = 0.87, and VDEI = 0.794.

2.1.3. Statistical Analysis

The descriptive analysis comprised two parts: a univariate analysis, where numerical variables were presented using measures of central tendency and dispersion, and a categorical analysis, where frequencies and chi-square tests were used to determine whether the frequency of at least one response differed significantly. In addition, a multivariate approach was applied using Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA), which is described below, followed by ordinal logistic regression (OLR) on the independent variables with the greatest variability. This approach followed the methodology of Sobalbarro-Figueroa et al. [73], Lucero-López et al. [74], Sevilla-Morales et al. [75], Castillo et al. [76], and Arjona Granados et al. [55].

2.1.4. Basics of Multiple Correspondence Analysis

MCA compares individuals based on the modalities of the variables that define them in the study. A group of individuals is considered similar if they report approximately the same variable modalities. Associations between variables arise when the same individuals report the same modalities across different variables. MCA identifies these associations among categorical variables through their respective modalities.

In this research, the purpose of MCA was not to model or explain relationship between variables but to identify those with the highest inertia (variability). Once identified, ordinal logistic regression was applied to estimate the probability of each response level of the dependent variable as a function of age and work experience. This methodology is based on the work of Alan Agresti, a world-renowned expert in the analysis of categorical data.

2.1.5. Software

Analyses, graphs, and tables were generated using R, version 4.5.1 [77] and the following R packages: factoextra [78], FactoMineR [79], foreign [80], ggplot2 [81], kableExtra [82], magick [83], missMDA [84], nnet [85], pander [86], papaja [87], readxl [88], reshape2 [89], tinylabels [90], and VGAM [91].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Descriptive Statistics

The respondents were between the ages of 21 and 56, with an average age of $36.1\pm 8.7$ years. Their experience ranged from of 1 year to 41 years, with an average of $13.7\pm 9.1$ years. Sample representativeness was assessed by participant roles: reception (36 participants, 47%), reservations (15 participants, 20%), sales (12 participants, 15%), and operations (14 participants, 18%).

Among the hotels where the questionnaires were administered, 19.5% were classified as four-star hotels and 80.5% as five-star hotels. This difference was statistically significant $[{\chi }^2\left(1\right),28.69],p<0.001$. Regarding the respondents, 57% identified as male and 43% as female. The statistical analysis indicated no significant difference between the percentages, as evidenced by the chi-squared test with one degree of freedom and a p-value greater than 0.05. Educational attainment was distributed as follows: technical careers (5%), students (3%), undergraduate studies (77%), and postgraduate studies (16%). The chi-squared test indicated a statistically significant difference between these categories, with a value of 112.35 at a significance level of 0.001.

For the ‘planning’ indicator, the most frequent response was ‘Almost always’ (50.6%), followed by ‘Always’ (33.8%) $[{\chi }^2\left(3\right),42.53],p<0.001$. In contrast, for the ‘conscientiousness’ indicator, ‘Always’ was the most common response (55.8%), followed by ‘Almost always’ (41.6%), with the results also highly significant $[{\chi }^2\left(2\right),35.09],p<0.001$. Regarding IE, the responses were dichotomous: participants indicated either ‘Always’ or ‘Almost always’. The former was more prevalent (64.9%) $[{\chi }^2\left(1\right),6.87)],p<0.001$. Regarding the ‘monitoring’ indicator, the most frequent response was ‘Almost always’ (62.3%), while ‘Sometimes’ was the least common response (6.5%) $[{\chi }^2\left(2\right),36.18],p<0.001$.

For general cultural knowledge, ‘Almost always’ was the most frequent response (62.3%) $[{\chi }^2\left(2\right),36.18],p<0.001$. Similarly, for specific cultural knowledge, ‘Almost always’ was again the most common response (51.9%) $[{\chi }^2\left(2\right),19.04],p<0.001$.

3.2. Multiple Correspondence Analysis

As mentioned, MCA was used only to identify the independent variables with the greatest variability. As shown in Figure 2, Dimension 1 explains 16.7% of the variability and Dimension 2 explains 12.1%. The indices with the highest inertia (iCNCCE, iCNCCG, iMECN, and iMEMO) were therefore used in the construction of the OLR models.

3.3. Ordinal Logistic Regression Analysis

Eight OLR models were estimated, with IE serving as the dependent variable and the four indices with the highest inertia (iCNCCE, iCNCCG, iMECN, and iMEMO) serving as the independent variables. Age and experience were also included to create probabilistic models and present the results graphically.

The following equations represent the estimated models for each index and IE response, using the response category ‘Sometimes’ as the reference:

$ln\left({\displaystyle \frac{P\left(Almostalways\right)}{P\left(Sometimes\right)}}\right)={\beta }_{10}+{\beta }_{11}\left(Almostalways\right)+{\beta }_{12}\left(Always\right)+{\beta }_{13}\left(Age\right)+{ϵ}_{ij}$

$ln\left({\displaystyle \frac{P\left(Always\right)}{P\left(Sometimes\right)}}\right)={\beta }_{10}+{\beta }_{11}\left(Almostalways\right)+{\beta }_{12}\left(Always\right)+{\beta }_{13}\left(Age\right)+{ϵ}_{ij}$

In the subsequent phase, the probabilities predicted by each model were calculated from the regression coefficients as functions of age and experience.

The age range considered was 25 to 60 years, matching the respondents’ distribution; experience ranged from 0 to 45 years. Probabilities were computed at the minimum, maximum, and mean values of age and experience.

Because the only responses obtained for IE were ‘Almost always’ and ‘Always’, the probabilities for each row sum to one. Consequently, results are presented only for the ‘Always’ response to streamline the presentation and avoid redundancy, as the probability of ‘Almost always’ is its complement.

The following variables were considered in the analysis: IE, age, experience, and cultural cognition, as well as the specific cultural knowledge indicator.

Table 4. Estimated mean probabilities for each construct by response category with respect to age and experience.

	Age	Experience
Specific cultural knowledge
Always	0.82	0.83
Almost always	0.63	0.66
Sometimes	0.23	0.25
General cultural knowledge.
Always	0.92	0.92
Almost always	0.60	0.64
Sometimes	0.20	0.20
Monitoring
Always	0.89	0.89
Almost always	0.58	0.60
Sometimes	0.63	0.63
Awareness
Always	0.84	0.85
Almost always	0.46	0.38
Sometimes	0.00	0.49

provides a summary of the mean probabilities for each construct, age and response. However, it is imperative to understand the behaviour predicted by the model and its variability as a function of age and work experience, which ranges within each response.

3.3.1. Specific Cultural Knowledge

This construct refers to knowledge of the specific ways in which universal culture manifests within a community [32]. The indicators and their definitions are as follows:

• CNCCE1: Assesses the capacity to discern how culture manifests in a particular community.
• CNCCE2: Assesses the extent of interest in understanding the value system of a specific cultural group.
• CNCCE3: Assesses the extent of interest in furthering understanding of a specific culture.

As shown in Figure 3, Panel 1, the probability of each response fluctuates with age. For the response ‘Always’, the probability increases from 0.81 to 0.84, with a mean of 0.82. For ‘Almost always’, the probability is 0.61 at age 25 and increases to 0.65 at age 60, with a mean of 0.63. For ‘Sometimes’, the probability increases from 0.21 to 0.24, with a mean of 0.23.

Figure 3, Panel 2, illustrates the probability of each response with respect to experience The probability of responding ‘Always’ ranges from 0.78 to 0.87, with a mean of 0.83. For ‘Almost always’, the probability is 0.59 at one year of experience and increases to 0.73 at 45 years, with a mean of 0.66. For ‘Sometimes’, the probability increases from 0.19 to 0.31, with a mean of 0.25.

The graphs illustrate the findings, which indicate that there is a relatively greater increase in the capacity for cultural cognition with experience than with age in the population under study. This suggests that the development of this ability is more likely to result from direct practice in cross-cultural interactions—such as industry experience—than from age-related factors alone.

This is a pivotal moment for reflection, as cultural intelligence involves an understanding of cultural frameworks and an appreciation of the nuances between them. Individuals who possess this aptitude endeavour to fulfil the needs of tourists by demonstrating cultural awareness and respect. The significance of cultural intelligence in cultivating customer loyalty in culturally diverse contexts has been extensively documented [92]. It is important to acknowledge that while a modicum of general knowledge is essential for engaging with a culture, it is equally crucial to broaden one’s understanding to include the multifaceted nuances of diverse cultural environments. This is of paramount importance for understanding and adapting to novel circumstances. Alshaibani and Bakir [46] report a positive correlation between cognitive cultural intelligence and the task performance of frontline employees in the hotel industry; however, the relationship is not statistically significant. This result is consistent with the findings of Ang et al. [2], who also observed a non-statistically significant correlation between the two variables.

3.3.2. General Cultural Knowledge

This construct is defined as an understanding of the universal elements presents in cultural development, as outlined by Van Dyne et al. [32]. Its indicators and their definitions are as follows:

• CNCCG1: Assesses the ability to distinguish between the various cultural patterns that elucidate the behaviours of cultures.
• CNCCG2: Assesses awareness of the impact of cultural factors on individual behaviour.
• CNCCG3: Assesses familiarity with diverse cultural norms and practices that enable an individual to navigate interactions with other cultures in a manner that avoids misunderstandings.

The behaviour in question, as it pertains to age, is illustrated in Figure 3, Panel 1. For the response ‘Always’, the probability ranges from 0.89 to 0.95, with a mean of 0.92. For ‘Almost always’, the probability is 0.52 at age 25 and increases to 0.69 at age 60, with a mean probability of 0.6. For ‘Sometimes’, the probability increases from 0.14 to 0.26, with a mean of 0.2.

Regarding experience, for the response ‘Always’, the probability ranges from 0.85 to 0.98, with a mean of 0.92. For ‘Almost always’, the probability is 0.42 at 0 years of experience and increases to 0.87 at 45 years, with a mean of 0.64. For ‘Sometimes’, the probability increases from 0.07 to 0.4, with a mean of 0.24. This trend is shown in Figure 4, Panel 2.

The findings indicate that, while age exerts a relatively minor influence on the ability to understand, describe, and identify cultural patterns within the study sample, experience gained through exposure to international tourists plays a pivotal role in the development of this ability, leading to enhanced cultural understanding. This phenomenon can be attributed to the role of cognitive cultural intelligence in the brain, which has been shown to encode, store, retrieve, and utilise information in the execution of cognitive tasks [31]. In multicultural environments, knowledge is considered a more critical factor than cultural dissimilarities in decision making, design, and task execution [2].

In summary, it can be posited that two forms of knowledge—general cultural knowledge and specific cultural knowledge—are integrated into a unified representation of cultural manifestations across the globe. Furthermore, these forms of knowledge are mutually reinforcing, facilitating an understanding of the impact of culture on human behaviour, which is essential for formulating appropriate responses. The development of a high level of cultural cognitive ability is achieved through the acquisition of general cultural knowledge, an understanding of cultural diversity, and the attainment of specific competencies for effective and efficient interaction within a given cultural context [20].

A study by Alshaibani and Bakir [46] demonstrated that cognitive cultural intelligence—defined as the capacity to understand and interact with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds—is associated with the ability of frontline employees to adapt to cultural interactions [46]. This process of adaptation is facilitated by an understanding of the social status, religious customs, habits, norms, arts, crafts, and languages of people from other cultures.

3.3.3. Monitoring

Monitoring represents a fundamental aspect of any operational process. The capacity to modify planned actions and redirect performance in accordance with contextual demands is a key aspect of this ability, as outlined by Van Dyne et al. [32]. Its indicators and their definitions are as follows:

• MEMO 1: Assesses the ability to understand that culture comprehension is contingent upon interactions with individuals from that culture.
• MEMO 2: Assesses the ability of an individual to modify their communication style to align with the cultural norms of the group with whom they am interacting.
• MEMO 3: Assesses the accuracy of an individual’s cultural understanding when interacting in diverse cultural contexts.

With respect to age, for the response ‘Always’, the probability ranges from 0.84 to 0.95, with a mean of 0.89. For ‘Almost always’, the probability is 0.44 at age 25 and increases to 0.72 at age 60, with a mean of 0.58. For ‘Sometimes’, the probability increases from 0.5 to 0.77, with a mean of 0.63 (see Figure 5, Panel 1).

With respect to experience, as shown in Figure 5, Panel 2, for the response ‘Always’, the probability increases from 0.81 to 0.97, with a mean of 0.89. For ‘Almost always’, the probability is 0.38 at 0 years of experience and increases to 0.83 at 45 years, with a mean of 0.6. For ‘Sometimes’, the probability increases from 0.41 to 0.84, with a mean of 0.63.

The findings suggest a discernible enhancement in the monitoring component of cultural metacognition as a result of sector-specific experience, relative to age, within the sample under study. This provides empirical support for the assertion that cultural metacognition fosters the awareness necessary to reflect on assumptions and gaps in cultural knowledge [2]. This is achieved through the continuous evaluation of one’s cultural knowledge, integrating experiences and information about diverse cultures [32]. As the metacognitive component increases, intercultural awareness is continuously updated through experiences and reflection, enabling the appropriate application of knowledge when interacting with people from other cultures in an analytical manner [4,30].

These findings align with prior research, indicating that metacognition enhances intercultural effectiveness by promoting contextualized thinking. This suggests that motivations and behaviours are shaped by the cultural contexts in which they emerge, alongside cognitive flexibility. Cognitive flexibility refers to the selective use of mental schemas and behavioural patterns as reflected in practice [37].

3.3.4. Awareness

This construct refers to attention to situational context and the ability to distinguish between one’s own cultural attitudes and those of others [32]. Its indicators and their definitions are as follows:

• MECN1: Assesses awareness of how one’s culture influences interactions with people from other cultures.
• MECN2: Assesses awareness of the importance of learning about other cultures.
• MECN3: Assesses awareness of the importance of culture to the individual.
• MECN4: Assesses the ability to distinguish between one’s own cultural attitudes and those of others.

With respect to age, the probability for the response ‘Always’ ranges from 0.82 to 0.87, with a mean of 0.84, as shown in Figure 6, Panel 1. For ‘Almost always’, the probability is 0.41 at age 25 and increases to 0.5 at age 60, with a mean of 0.46. For ‘Sometimes’, the probability increases from 0 to 0, with a mean of 0.

With respect to experience, the probability for the response ‘Always’ rises from 0.8 to 0.9, with a mean of 0.85, as shown in Figure 6, Panel 2. For ‘Almost always’, the probability is 0.38 at 0 years of experience and increases to 0.59 at 45 years, with a mean of 0.49. For ‘Sometimes’, it can be deduced that the probability remains zero in the absence of modifications.

The findings of this study demonstrate that experience in cultural interactions is the most effective means of increasing awareness. This assertion is supported by the research by Crotty and Brett [93], who found that individuals with high metacognitive cultural intelligence are more inclined to spearhead the establishment of a culture that integrates the environment in which they operate and to bridge disparate cultures. Moreover, such individuals exhibit not only a high level of cognitive and monitoring capacity but also a strong capacity for critical awareness of their own learning [94]. As stated by Rockstuhl and Dyne [29], cultural metacognitive intelligence relies on an individual’s awareness of cultural differences during interactions, thereby reducing the likelihood of making superficial and inaccurate judgments based on appearances or ethnic distinctions.

Furthermore, quantitative research conducted by Alshaibani and Bakir [46] has also shown a robust positive correlation between metacognitive cultural intelligence and task performance. This provides empirical support for the hypothesis that metacognitive cultural intelligence in frontline hotel employees enhances their awareness, adaptation, and verification when interacting with individuals from other cultures [31]. This enables them to perform tasks in a timely and organised manner.

Metacognition is defined as a self-regulating process that occurs through awareness, which stems from the abundance of knowledge in mental processes [32]. Awareness facilitates the acquisition of cultural self-knowledge—both individual and interpersonal—in real time. This process facilitates the critical evaluation and renewal of knowledge, enabling its adaptation to different contexts. This necessitates awareness of the extent to which culture influences one’s own mental processes and behaviours, as well as those of others, in both personal situations and intercultural interactions. Thus, it is imperative to reflect on one’s own cultural habits and the cultural knowledge employed in intercultural interactions [95].

This research provides a response to the initial question regarding the factors that enhance metacognitive and cognitive capacities in personnel who deliver empathic attention to international tourists. The findings underscore the significance of metacognitive and cognitive capacities in the development of cultural intelligence within the study population.

Regarding cognition, a slight increase was observed in both general cultural knowledge and the subdimensions of specific cultural knowledge. Regarding specific cultural knowledge, the analysis revealed minimal variation with age. In contrast, general cultural knowledge exhibited discernible growth. Experience in the tourism sector, as demonstrated by the sample, appears to enhance both cultural cognition and general cultural knowledge.

In terms of metacognition, the monitoring element—defined as the ability to modify planned actions in response to contextual demands—exhibited improvement with age, but a significantly greater increase was associated with experience.

With respect to the awareness subdimension of cultural metacognition, the sample showed minimal change with age. However, awareness derived from experience in the sector significantly enhanced performance. Consequently, it is postulated that a high level of cultural metacognition is indicative of a greater capacity to organise, examine, and apply cultural knowledge appropriately in intercultural interactions. This is achieved through the application of cultural knowledge, enabling the development of context-specific solutions based on sustained practice.

3.4. Linking the Findings to the Relevant Theoretical Framework

It is imperative that hotel staff possess the specific competencies to interact appropriately with tourists from diverse cultural backgrounds. In order to understand the influence of culture on travellers’ perceptions and behaviours, it is necessary to analyse the concept of culture itself. This analysis facilitates the identification of how experience gained through interactions, and its assimilation, contribute to the enrichment of an individual’s repertoire. This repertoire is, in turn, essential for generating the appropriate responses to cultural influences [38].

Cultural metacognition provides the necessary awareness to reflect on assumptions and gaps in cultural knowledge [2], fostering an ongoing review of one’s own cultural knowledge and incorporating new insights as individuals accumulate experiences and knowledge about different cultures—a continuous process of revision and renewal [32]. This finding is consistent with the research results, as learning through experience becomes integrated with acquired knowledge and experience, enabling continuous adaptation. Experience is thus defined as the integration and adjustment of cultural knowledge (cognition) in a dynamic process, facilitating adaptation to change and the renewal of response strategies. It is evident that experience in the field of tourism facilitates the enrichment of knowledge, its integration, and its adaptation to the needs of individuals.

The observed increase in metacognition among the study sample is related to the experience of personnel. A substantial body of research has demonstrated that experience exerts a facilitating effect on the gradual improvement of cultural skills [55]. This phenomenon can be attributed to the instrumental role of experience in enhancing the capacity to modify preconceptions formed through prior experiences. The establishment of meaningful intercultural relationships is contingent upon the ability to demonstrate flexible behaviour, which is essential for generating positive impressions.

This finding is consistent with the assertion put forth by Ang et al. [2], who posited that individuals with high metacognitive intelligence exhibit higher-order thinking, enabling them to regulate cognitive processes and enhance their understanding of unfamiliar cultures. In this context, studies have indicated that individuals with high cultural metacognition are able to adapt their expectations in interactions that do not conform to culturally expected behaviours [96].

It can thus be concluded that metacognition facilitates contemporary and accurate cultural understanding. When integrated with empathy, it fosters specific comprehension pathways that enable adaptation to the preferences, possibilities, and needs of current, new, and prospective travellers [97]. Furthermore, it encompasses the recognition of cultural variation between individuals. Tucker [59] identified components of empathy across various tourism contexts, conceptualising what he terms ‘empathising touristically’.

It is important to highlight studies on cultural intelligence within the tourism sector that underscore the impact of CQ on customer satisfaction and productivity [40,41,42,43,44]. Furthermore, research has investigated personality factors. For instance, extensive research on the Interpersonal Reactivity Index was conducted in 2007 by Young et al. [45]; in 2017, service performance and quality were investigated by Alshaibani and Bakir [46]; in 2014, career- and service-oriented behaviour were explored by Pelin [47]; and in 2011, overall performance was studied by Fakhreldin [48]. This extensive body of research provides substantial support for this field of enquiry.

3.5. Practical Interpretation of Results

The findings of the present study suggest that customer service employees who possess cultural knowledge and the ability to adapt and test the accuracy of this knowledge when interacting with customers from different cultures are more adaptable. Such experiences have been shown to enhance the probability of effective task performance while concurrently ensuring the provision of reliable, safe, and empathetic hospitality services to guests [46].

In the administrative context, there is a need to incorporate cultural knowledge as a requirement in the selection processes of tourism service personnel, as well as to integrate its practice into induction and ongoing training programmes. In the domain of cultural management, cultural diversity training programmes should be considered an instrumental tool for facilitating a profound and precise understanding of cultural variability. The implementation of such programmes has been shown to engender a heightened awareness of intercultural behaviour while simultaneously providing a substantial competitive advantage within the cultural sector. This, in turn, facilitates greater integration and collaboration between diverse communities and cultures. This study highlights the utility of cultural diversity training as a conduit for fostering respect and cultivating sensitivity toward the multifaceted dimensions of diversity among managerial, employee, and customer demographics [98].

McKay et al. [99] observed that organisations with diversity policies designed to integrate multicultural employees into their structures as a competitive advantage tend to foster the perception of a positive climate for diversity, which, in turn, results in higher customer satisfaction.

Cultural intelligence has been shown to be a pivotal element in mitigating the perception of cultural disparities among employees and foreign guests, which can otherwise result in discomfort or stress [21]. This phenomenon can be explained by the ability of cultural intelligence to foster empathy toward people from diverse cultural backgrounds [52]. The findings are consistent with research conducted in Thailand, which highlights the relevance of CQ and turnover intention in cross-cultural work contexts within the tourism field. This study emphasises the efficacy of staff CQ training and its impact on mitigating staff turnover in the hotel sector [53].

The enhancement in metacognition that was observed among the study sample was found to be associated with personnel experience. This result provides a framework for internal decision-making processes concerning talent selection, assignment, training, and promotion.

As demonstrated by CQ studies in the field of tourism [39], cultural intelligence has been shown to exert a positive influence on guest satisfaction and the evaluation of the overall tourism experience.

Individuals with a high level of cultural metacognition exhibit a heightened awareness of cultural differences, accompanied by a willingness to contribute novel ideas that address diversity gaps [100,101]. In this context, a continuous process of understanding, adjustment, and updating emerges from cultural knowledge, culminating in cultural metacognition. This process facilitates the dynamic revision and renewal of knowledge, thereby preventing the entrenchment of static and inflexible frameworks that impede the generation of effective solutions to cultural challenges.

Some limitations of this study include its limited geographical scope and the absence of references to other contexts for comparative purposes. It is evident that other areas of hotel operations with direct interactions with tourists, as well as actors within the tourism value chain, were excluded from the analysis.

Within the discipline of tourism studies, it is essential to undertake comparative analyses of tourist destinations within a single nation and their respective relationships with foreign tourists. Such analyses facilitate the assessment of the degree to which cultural intelligence is developed among personnel. This, in turn, contributes to an increase in tourist numbers. Implementing this approach will help identify key attributes such as openness, flexibility, cultural awareness, and intercultural preparedness among staff in tourist destinations. In the context of customer service within the tourism services and products value chain, implementing cultural competence supports the identification of diverse market segment needs. Furthermore, it is imperative to monitor the changes, interests, trends, and preferences underlying these behavioural patterns in order to adapt service delivery effectively.

4. Conclusions

The findings of this research suggest that employees who possess a metacognitive understanding of cultural knowledge—that is, those who are aware of the existence of such knowledge and have the ability to adapt it and verify its accuracy—are more capable of acting appropriately in intercultural contexts and performing their roles effectively. Consequently, the probability of delivering a dependable, secure, and compassionate hospitality service (intercultural empathy) is elevated. Cultural diversity training endeavours to equip individuals with the competencies required to function as proficient intercultural communicators, characterised by cultural awareness and sensitivity within the professional milieu [102]. To achieve the desired outcomes, it is essential that such training programmes be designed to promote the development of competencies such as cultural awareness (metacognition) and cultural sensitivity [98].

This is particularly significant in light of the profound transformations occurring in global tourism, which have been precipitated by economic growth in emerging economies. These changes have resulted in the emergence of new and diverse types of tourists. The primary objective of this study was to develop a tool to identify the openness, flexibility, cultural awareness, and intercultural preparedness of personnel providing services at tourist destinations. The analysis demonstrated that, within the context of intercultural service encounters, employees’ experience influences cultural intelligence and intercultural empathy, thereby contributing to the existing literature on intercultural competence. The study also proposed a model for identifying the level of intercultural competence among employees, which can inform selection, training, and performance appraisal processes.

The findings of the analysis were influenced by the characteristics of the study sample, which included a high proportion of individuals with bachelor’s and master’s degrees. Age was associated with a slight increase in competence, whereas years of experience showed a more pronounced effect. Empirical evidence indicates that direct engagement with international tourism fosters the development of metacognitive skills, including the ability to make plans in advance and modify actions according to contextual demands. Furthermore, it enhances the ability to organize, examine, and apply cultural knowledge appropriately in intercultural interactions. The integration of cognition and metacognition in practice is imperative for the attainment of intercultural empathy, which facilitates the understanding of tourists’ needs as shaped by cultural patterns.

In summary, the elements of cultural intelligence—cognition and metacognition—identified in this study are essential to the empathic understanding of the demands of the intercultural tourism market. The deepening of cultural knowledge—both one’s own and that of others—facilitates the conscious reconfiguration of perspective and the attainment of mutual understanding, thereby transcending cultural boundaries.