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Review

Low Internet Penetration in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Role of LEO Satellites in Addressing the Issue

by
Olabisi Falowo
1,* and
Samuel Falowo
2
1
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa
2
IHS Towers, Rosebank, Gauteng 2196, South Africa
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Telecom 2026, 7(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/telecom7010007
Submission received: 20 October 2025 / Revised: 23 December 2025 / Accepted: 29 December 2025 / Published: 5 January 2026
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Abstract

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with an estimated population of 1.243 billion people as of December 2024, had the lowest mobile Internet penetration in the world at 29%, significantly below the global average of 58%. Moreover, SSA also had the lowest mobile data traffic per active smartphone, averaging 5 GB per month—about a quarter of the global average of 19 GB per month in 2024. This paper analyses the factors responsible for the low Internet penetration in SSA, which include limited Internet service availability, Internet device and service affordability, digital ability, government regulation and policy, and deficit of network-supporting infrastructure. The paper then discusses the popular Internet access networks in SSA and their limitations. It presents low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites as a possible access network for enhancing Internet penetration in SSA, giving examples of LEO network service deployment in some SSA countries. The paper discusses the feasible business models for LEO satellite Internet services in SSA, the challenges to LEO satellite service penetration, and possible solutions.

1. Introduction

Internet connectivity has become the foundation of prosperity and an essential need for functioning societies [1]. Thus, the ITU Connect 2030 has set overarching goals of universal connectivity and sustainable digital transformation, considering that Internet connectivity is an essential service [2]. In the past decade, significant progress has been made towards universal connectivity in different regions of the world. However, despite the progress made globally, Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) with an estimated population of 1.243 billion people as of December 2024, had the lowest mobile Internet penetration in the world at 29%, significantly below the global average of 58% [3].
Globally, access to the Internet has been provided through fixed and mobile broadband networks. The fixed broadband networks include fibre to the home (FTTH), digital subscriber lines (DSL), cables, and fixed wireless access, whereas the mobile broadband networks are primarily the 3G, 4G, and 5G networks. The mobile broadband networks have contributed more towards increasing Internet penetration in different regions of the world than the fixed broadband networks. Figure 1, adapted from [3], shows mobile Internet connectivity by region in 2024.
As shown in Figure 1, 29% of the people in SSA were connected to the Internet through mobile broadband networks in 2024. This percentage is about half of the global average of 58% [3]. The low Internet penetration in SSA could be attributed to issues which include availability of network service, mobile device affordability, service affordability, digital ability, government regulation and policy, and deficit of network-supporting infrastructure.
In addition to the problem of low Internet penetration, SSA has the lowest mobile data traffic per active smartphone in the world. Figure 2 adapted from [4] shows the mobile data traffic per active smartphone in different regions of the world in 2024. As shown in Figure 2, the mobile data traffic per active smartphone in SSA was 5 GB per month in 2024—about 28% of the global average of 19 GB per month. It is projected that this value will increase to 17 GB per month in 2030—about 43% of the global average of 40 GB. Factors that have contributed to the low mobile data traffic per smartphone in SSA include users’ device capability, availability of data-intensive content, capacity and data rate supported by the most popular mobile broadband network (3G), data service affordability and users’ digital ability.
To address the problem of low Internet penetration, in recent years, low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites have emerged as a suitable network for providing broadband Internet access. Thus, in SSA, LEO satellite service providers such as Starlink and Eutelsat have launched Internet services in some SSA countries, and more countries in the region are seeking to leverage the service provided by LEO satellites to enhance Internet penetration.
In the literature, some papers have discussed the use of LEO satellites to enhance Internet penetration is some regions of the world. In [5], Ahmmed et al. discussed the problem of digital divide in rural and remote areas in Canada, and the various initiatives by the Canadian government to address the problem, which is exacerbated by the huge geographical area of the country. The authors discussed challenges of bridging the digital divide and the possible role of the LEO satellite in bridging the gap in Canada. In [1], Lappalainen et al. discussed the problem of digital divide between rural and urban communities, using Canada and USA as specific examples. The authors discussed the convergence between fixed broadband and mobile services through fixed wireless access (FWA), and how network operators can leverage 4G and 5G networks to provide limited broadband services to rural communities through FWA. In [6], Homssi et al. presented an overview of LEO mega satellite constellations for next generation wireless networks. They discussed the opportunities and challenges of using the LEO constellation to provide global coverage and address the coverage gap in rural and remote areas. They also presented an analytical model and simulation of a LEO satellite constellation. However, the three papers reviewed above did not considered the peculiar situation of SSA with regard to the low Internet penetration and low mobile data traffic per active smartphone in the region.
In [7], Cariolle analysed the problem of digital divide in SSA from the perspective of availability of fibre submarine cables used for Internet backbone. The paper shows that more than 99% of the international Internet traffic is carried on fibre cable and that exclusion of SSA from the fibre interconnection process in the past decades contributed to digital divide in SSA. However, the paper did not address the problem of low Internet penetration in SSA from the perspective of access broadband networks, which is the focus of the paper.
The contributions of this article are highlighted as follows.
  • We discuss the problem of low Internet penetration in SSA and analyse the factors responsible for the low Internet penetration.
  • We present visible LEO business models in SAA with practical examples.
  • We analyse the opportunity and challenge of LEO satellite services in SSA and proffer possible solutions.
The remainder of this paper is organised as follows. Section 2 presents the review methodology. Section 3 describes the problem of low Internet penetration in SSA. Section 4 discusses the popular Internet access networks in SSA. Section 5 focuses on LEO satellite opportunities in SSA. Section 6 presents the LEO business models in SSA. Section 7 discusses the challenges of LEO satellite service penetration in SSA and possible solutions, and Section 8 concludes the paper.

2. Review Methodology

To identify the relevant literature, a broad search was conducted using various combinations of keywords, including the following: Internet penetration in Sub-Saharan Africa; Internet broadband mobility report; ITU Mobile Broadband Report; challenges of Internet connectivity in Sub-Saharan Africa; biggest mobile network operators in Sub-Saharan Africa; LEO satellite service providers in Sub-Saharan Africa; the role of LEO satellites in bridging the digital divide; communication network regulators in Sub-Saharan Africa; mobile network business models, and related terms.
In total, 37 references were used in this narrative review. These included peer-reviewed journal articles, mobility and statistical reports from ITU, GSMA, Ericsson, and Nokia, data from the World Bank database, and information from the websites of communication-network regulatory bodies in Sub-Saharan Africa, major mobile network operators, and LEO satellite service providers operating within the region. The data were analysed and presented using bar charts, a line graph, and tables to illustrate key trends and comparisons.

3. The Problem of Low Internet Penetration in Sub-Saharan Africa

In this section, we discuss the problem of low Internet connectivity in SSA with regard to availability of network services, mobile device affordability, service affordability, digital ability, government regulation and policy, and deficit of network-supporting infrastructure.

3.1. Availability of Broadband Network Service

Limited availability of fixed broadband and mobile broadband networks is a major factor that has contributed to the low Internet penetration in SSA. Figure 3, adapted from [3], shows the mobile broadband coverage gap in different regions of the world. As shown in Figure 3, 13% of people in Sub-Saharan Africa did not have access to mobile broadband networks in 2024, which means they did not have access to at least the 3G network. Thus, coverage gap is a major challenge in Sub-Saharan Africa.

3.2. Mobile Device Affordability

Smartphone and other mobile devices are essential for meaningful Internet usage. Figure 4, adapted from [8], illustrates smartphone adoption across different regions of the world in 2024. It represents the percentage of connected individuals in each region who use smartphones. As shown in Figure 4, SSA has the lowest smartphone adoption of 54%. The low adoption of smartphones in SSA can be attributed to the problem of affordability. Thus, device affordability is an important issue affecting Internet penetration in SSA.

3.3. Internet Service Affordability

Internet service affordability is another major issue that has contributed to low Internet penetration in SSA. In 2018, the Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development set seven targets, including one that states that by 2025, entry-level broadband services should be made affordable in developing countries, at less than two per cent of the monthly gross national income (GNI) per capita [9]. Figure 5, adapted from [9], compares the cost of data-only mobile-broadband service across different regions of the world for 2023 and 2024. As shown in Figure 5, the cost of data-only mobile broadband service in Africa was the highest in 2023 and 2024. In 2024, Africa was the only region where the cost of data-only mobile-broadband service was above the 2% threshold recommended by the Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development, which clearly shows that service affordability is a major issue in SSA.

3.4. Digital Ability

Digital ability in an important factor that affects Internet penetration. A study conducted in [10] found out that basic IT literacy is an important factor in determining access and use of the Internet. The study showed that “basic IT literacy significantly increases the likelihood of greater Internet access and greater extent of Internet use” [10]. In 2022, the Digital Skills Gap Index had a global average of 6 whereas the score for African countries varied between 1.8 and 5, which showed that SSA countries were below the global average in digital skills [11]. Thus, digital ability is another important factor that has contributed to low Internet connectivity in Sub-Saharan Africa.

3.5. Government Regulation Policy

Government regulation and policy in SSA are supposed to create an enabling environment for Internet access growth and promote digital inclusion not only in the urban but also in the rural areas. One of the conclusions drawn from studies and research conducted on the regulatory frameworks and policy performance in Africa was that ICT policy and regulations generally emanate from foreign actors rather than through participatory policy formulation within the countries [12]. This situation has led to policies that do not fully reflect local needs in some countries. Therefore, workable policies are pivotal to addressing SSA Internet access challenges. In addition, spectrum must be effectively licenced at the right time, and the cost of spectrum should not be prohibitive. Governments and regulators should prioritise assigning spectrum to achieve their national connectivity goal, considering that there is a positive correlation between Internet penetration and GDP.

3.6. Deficit of Network-Supporting Infrastructure

Infrastructure deficit resulting from low investment in network-supporting infrastructure is another issue that has contributed to low Internet penetration in SSA. While effort has been intensified to provide network-supporting infrastructures in urban areas, the rural areas remain underdeveloped. The deployment cost of the terrestrial network infrastructure in rural areas is enormous and, thus, network operators tend to weigh the network deployment and maintenance cost against anticipated revenue [13]. Therefore, without government intervention, there is no incentive for network operators to deploy high-speed broadband networks in rural and remote locations.

4. Popular Internet Access Networks in Sub-Saharan Africa

In this section, we discuss the popular Internet access broadband networks in SSA, which can be categorised into four groups, namely: mobile broadband networks, fixed broadband networks, Wi-Fi, and satellite networks.

4.1. Mobile Broadband Network

The mobile broadband networks are the most prevalent Internet access networks in SSA because of the advantages of users’ mobility support, lower infrastructure costs, flexible pricing, and faster rollout, when compared to fixed broadband networks in the region that has a large rural population of 54%. Moreover, many SSA countries never had widespread landline infrastructure, which fixed broadband networks typically build upon. Figure 6, adapted from [3], shows the mobile network technology mix in SSA compared with other regions of the world in 2024. The mobile broadband networks are the 3G, 4G, and 5G network, while the 2G network is not a broadband network. Figure 6 shows that in 2024, the 3G network was the most widely used mobile broadband network in SSA. In contrast, 4G was the dominant network in Europe, Latin America, and the Middle East and North Africa, while 5G was the most commonly used network in Greater China and North America.
Considering that the capacity and the average data rate a user can experience on a 3G network are much less than that of 4G and 5G networks, there is a limit to what 3G users can achieve on the Internet. This partially explains why the average mobile data traffic per mobile connection (GB per month) shown in Figure 2 is very low in SSA compared to other regions of the world.
The mobile broadband market in SSA is highly competitive with many mobile network operators vying for market share. Some of the top mobile broadband operators in SSA are shown in Table 1. As shown in Table 1, MTN Group has the highest number of active broadband data subscribers in SSA.
There is significant room for growth in broadband Internet subscriptions in SSA. Figure 7, adapted from [19], shows that the number of mobile-Internet subscribers (3G, 4G, and 5G) in Central, East, and West Africa (CEWA) is expected to increase from 645.06 million in 2025 to 1067.52 million in 2030. Over the same period, the number of mobile-Internet subscribers in Southern Africa (SADC) is projected to grow from 170.17 million in 2025 to 212.52 million in 2030.

4.2. Fixed Broadband Network (FTX, DSL, FWA)

The fixed broadband networks in SSA can be classified as FTX, DSL, Cable, and FWA). Fixed broadband access networks have low penetration in SSA and are mostly used in the capital and major cities in SSA countries. Figure 8, adapted from [20], shows the percentage of fixed broadband network users in SSA from 2014 to 2024. It shows that the percentage of the fixed broadband network users is increasing; however, overall penetration remains very low.
Figure 9 adapted from [20] shows the percentage of the fixed broadband network users in the ten biggest economies in SSA in 2023. South Africa has the highest percentage of fixed broadband networks in SSA.
Table 2 shows the subscriptions of the fixed broadband operators in five SSA countries in 2024, considering cable, FTTX, DSL, and others. Please note that not all the required data for the countries are available. As shown in Table 2, South Africa leads FTTH deployment in SSA, where companies like Vumatel, Openserve, frogfoot, and MetroFibre are expanding coverage in urban and some suburban areas. In Kenya and Nigeria, companies like Safaricom, Zuku, and Liquid Telecom are expanding coverage in Kenyan cities, and providers like MainOne, FiberOne and ipNX are expanding coverage in Nigerian cities. Moreover, countries like Uganda, Tanzania, Ghana, and Rwanda have emerging deployments, mostly concentrated in capital cities.

4.3. Wi-Fi

In SSA, public Wi-Fi is commonly used in schools, educational institutions, libraries, cafés, bus and transit stations and airports. There are also Wi-Fi community networks deployed by NGOs or local governments.

4.4. Satellite Network

Globally, whereas the population coverage of mobile broadband networks is currently about 75%, the geographic coverage of mobile broadband networks is only about 10% less [26]. Thus, the satellite network has become a viable alternative for providing global geographic coverage for Internet access. In SSA, the use of satellite broadband networks is rapidly expanding. Satellites networks are currently used in eight SSA countries to provide broadband access in cities, augmenting the insufficient fixed and wireless broadband networks, as well as to provide broadband access in rural and remote areas where terrestrial infrastructure is lacking. The following are the key LEO service providers in SSA: Starlink, YahClick, Avanti, SES, and Eutelsat. Starlink is the most popular satellite service provided in SSA where it currently operates in 21 countries. Table 3 shows the popular satellite service providers in SSA, which includes LEO and geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) satellite service providers.
As shown in Table 3, most of the satellite service providers in SSA countries use GEO and LEO satellites. However, in countries where the LEO satellite service is available, most subscribers are connected through LEO. For example, in Kenya, 17,066 of the 19,403 satellite Internet service users (88%) are connected through Starlink-operated LEO satellites [23], which shows the growing popularity of LEO satellites in the region. Table 4 compares very low Earth orbit (VLEO), LEO, medium Earth orbit (MEO), and GEO satellites for Internet service, considering the attributes of the different satellites [5,27]. VLEO and LEO have the advantage of low latency, low energy consumption, and high scalability. Thus, VLEO and LEO satellites are the most suitable satellites for providing low-latency high-speed Internet access. Thus, in the subsequent sections, we focus on the role of LEO satellites in enhancing Internet penetration in SSA.

5. LEO Satellite Opportunities for Enhancing Internet Penetration

LEO satellites have become the most attractive satellite networks for providing Internet connectivity because of the following advantages:
  • Low latency, which make them suitable for supporting real-time services.
  • Low power consumption because of short distance and low propagation loss between LEO and user devices.
  • High capacity and throughput per unit area because frequency reuse is more effective in LEO satellite networks than in MEO and GEO networks due to the smaller beam footprints of LEO satellites. This allows for greater spatial reuse of frequencies, which enhances cell densification in LEO networks, and thus enables higher capacity and throughput per unit area, particularly with multi-beam antennas.
  • Consistent capacity and QoS in urban, rural, and remote areas. Unlike terrestrial networks (e.g., 4G and 5G mobile networks) where network operators usually deploy more capacity in urban areas than in rural areas because the cost of deploying network increases as population density decreases, the LEO satellite network can provide the same capacity and QoS in urban, rural, and remote areas because the satellites are in constant motion around the globe. Thus, the LEO satellite network can augment the capacity of terrestrial networks in urban areas while meeting the capacity need in underserved rural and unserved remote areas.
  • Global coverage with a constellation of LEO satellites. Thus, LEO satellites can be used to provide coverage in rural and remote locations.
  • Resilience to natural and manmade disasters. LEO satellites can improve network resilience in zones prone to natural and man-made disasters.
Figure 10, adapted from the ITU [26], shows the gap between the percentage of individuals without mobile Internet access (i.e., without access to at least a 3G network) in rural and urban areas across different world regions in 2024. From Figure 10, it can be observed that in Africa, there is a large disparity between rural and urban areas: 25% of individuals in rural areas lack Internet access compared with only 0.1% in urban areas. This gap is substantial, especially considering that 56% of the Sub-Saharan African population lived in rural areas in 2024 [28]. Therefore, LEO satellite networks can help extend coverage to underserved rural communities and unserved remote-area dwellers in the region.
However, LEO satellites have some technical drawbacks, which include the following:
  • High frequency of handover and handover complexity because a large number of LEO satellites are required to provide global and continuous coverage. Therefore, each LEO satellite has short visibility time, and frequent handovers from one LEO satellite to another are required to ensure users’ devices are continuously connected to the Internet.
  • Problem of interference as a result of the large constellation of LEO satellites required to provide global connectivity. There is a need to mitigate interference and optimise spectrum utilisation across different nations and regions by performing frequency switching. This involves dynamically switching between frequency bands to avoid interference with other satellites, ground stations, or terrestrial networks, particularly when LEO satellites cross geographic boundaries or experience changes in orbital position.
  • High cost of launching and maintaining LEO satellites and the ground stations. It is highly capital intensive to launch and maintain LEO satellites and the ground stations. Moreover, LEO satellites have a limited operational lifespan, and therefore, there is a need for regular replacement of LEO satellites in orbit.

6. LEO Satellite Business Models in SSA

In this section, we discuss LEO satellite business models in SSA. The business models are classified as Business to Consumers (B2C), Business to Business (B2B), and Business to Government (B2G).

6.1. Business to Consumer

In the business to customer model, a LEO network operator such as Starlink and Eutelsat Konnect provide broadband Internet service directly to users in urban, suburban, rural areas, and remote locations. They sell the service to users through e-commerce platforms or local resellers. The users are individuals, households, small businesses, etc. This is currently the most popular use case in SSA, where Starlink is the most popular satellite operator providing B2C service. As of mid-2025, Starlink provides LEO Internet service in the following 21 SSA countries: Nigeria, Rwanda, Mozambique, Kenya, Malawi, Zambia, Benin, Eswatini, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Madagascar, Botswana, Ghana, Burundi, Zimbabwe, Cape Verde, Liberia, Niger, Somalia, Lesotho, and Chad [29]. The LEO B2C model requires that a user purchase a once-off satellite kit and a monthly subscription plan. The satellite kit includes a satellite dish and a Wi-Fi router.
The basic architecture of LEO service provisioning under B2C is shown in Figure 11. The LEO satellite dish in the user’s premises is connected to a LEO satellite network, which is then connected to the Internet through the gateway located on the ground. The LEO satellite dish is connected to a LEO Ethernet adapter, which is connected to a Wi-Fi access point and LAN. Thus, users’ devices are able to access the Internet by connection to the Wi-Fi access point or the LAN. To maintain Internet service continuity, there is a periodic handover of the LEO dish Internet connection from one LEO satellite to another because the LEO satellites are in constant motion. Thus, handovers will occur every 7–14 min, depending on the satellite’s altitude and the minimum elevation angle used for the LEO satellite.
In many SSA countries, the satellite broadband network is currently a major network for Internet access in cities because of the deficit of fixed broadband infrastructures and low coverage of 4G and 5G mobile networks. Thus, there is high demand for LEO Internet service from city dwellers, who can afford the LEO service. This situation is different from the situation in developed countries where the LEO satellite broadband network is primarily seen as a solution for connecting rural and remote locations to the Internet because their cities already have high penetration of fixed Internet services provided through FTTH, xDSL, cables, and FWA, as well as high penetration of 4G and 5G mobile networks.
For example, in Nigeria—the most populous country in Africa—Starlink has become the second-largest Internet service provider in terms of subscriber numbers, with most of its users located in major cities. In 2024, some media reports indicated that Starlink temporarily halted new customer sign-ups in certain major cities in Sub-Saharan Africa due to capacity constraints and emerging network congestion on its LEO satellite network [30]. The affected cities reportedly included Lagos and Abuja in Nigeria, Nairobi in Kenya, and Harare in Zimbabwe. These developments suggest that in SAA, the satellite broadband is not only a solution for underserved rural and remote areas but also an increasingly important option for meeting broadband demand in urban areas.

6.2. Business to Business

In the B2B model, LEO operators or resellers partner with national, local ISPs, or mobile network operators to provide low-latency high-speed Internet connectivity to the public or enterprises. The business-to-business model for LEO satellites in Sub-Saharan Africa is shaped by a network coverage gap, infrastructure gaps, fragmented regulation, diverse market needs, and the unique need of rural, remote areas, and enterprise connectivity. Under the B2B model, an MNO can partner with a LEO service provider to provide coverage in rural and remote locations by backhauling standalone base stations to their core network using LEO satellites or partner with a LEO service provider to provide direct LEO satellite connectivity (satellite fallback) to MNO subscribers when the subscribers are outside the coverage of mobile networks, in which case the MNO service provider integrates the fall-back LEO capacity into mobile network offerings. Figure 12 illustrates the backhauling of a standalone 4G or 5G base station to the core network through a LEO satellite connection in the B2B business model. An example of this B2B model is the partnership between the Africa Mobile Networks (AMN) operator and Starlink, announced in 2023. AMN builds mobile network base stations to serve rural communities where there is no existing network service in SSA. AMN has over 4000 base stations (2G, 3G, and 4G) in 15 countries in SSA [31]. Some of the AMN base stations are connected to the core network through Starlink LEO satellites.
In direct-to-device services to large MNOs, the LEO satellite operators’ partner with MNOs around the world to offer 100% geographic coverage in the territory of each MNO by integrating seamlessly with their existing terrestrial networks. The MNO subscribers can seamlessly switch from the MNO network to LEO satellite network, and vice versa, and the subscribers will receive a unified bill from the MNO for the services used in both MNO and LEO satellite networks. Figure 13 illustrates that the LEO satellite network falls back in an integrated MNO and LEO satellite network under the B2B model. As shown in Figure 13, when an MNO subscriber moves outside the coverage of the terrestrial (mobile) network, the subscriber’s session is handed over to the LEO satellite network. Subscribers using real-time services may experience some QoS variations after switching from the terrestrial network to the satellite network due to the higher latency of the LEO network and the frequent handovers between LEO satellites. Furthermore, mobile device battery consumption may increase because the longer propagation distance between the subscriber and the LEO satellite leads to higher path loss, and users may incur higher service costs compared to using the terrestrial network.
In the following paragraphs, examples of the B2B model in SSA are presented. In December 2020, Vodafone, in partnership with AST Space Mobile, announced an initiative to extend mobile broadband through LEO satellites directly to standard smartphones across several countries including SSA countries such as DR Congo, Ghana, Mozambique, Kenya, and Tanzania [32].
In March 2025, MTN Group in partnership with Lynk Global [33] successfully conducted Africa’s first direct satellite-to-phone call trial. When the B2B network service becomes operational, MTN subscribers will be able to connect to LEO satellites whenever MTN subscribers are outside the coverage of the MTN network. Moreover, the MTN Group in SSA is strengthening its partnerships with LEO satellite providers, including Starlink, Eutelsat OneWeb, AST & Science and Lynk, to efficiently expand services to enterprises and local communities [14].
Furthermore, in May 2025, Airtel announced a partnership with Starlink to bring Starlink’s high-speed Internet services to its subscribers in Africa. With the collaboration, Airtel Africa aims to enhance its Internet connectivity offerings and augment connectivity for enterprises, businesses and socio-economic communities like school, and health centres in most rural parts of Africa [34].

6.3. Business to Government

In the business-to-government model, the government entities partner with LEO satellite providers to actualise their universal service obligations. This model enables LEO satellite service providers to provide direct Internet connectivity or communications services to government entities, especially in rural, remote, underserved, or strategic regions. These government entities include public schools, public clinics and healthcare facilities, police stations, government offices, environmental monitoring departments, border surveillance units, disaster forecasting units, etc.
The following are examples of B2G in SSA. In 2015, the European Space Agency (ESA), in collaboration with Openet Technologies and SES Techcom Services, implemented the Sway4edu2 (Satellite way for education 2) project to connect 12 rural schools in Mpumalanga province, South Africa. Each school was equipped with satellite terminals, solar panels, laptops, tablets, and projectors, providing Internet connectivity and access to eLearning resources. The project was successful, and it is still ongoing. However, the Internet access is provided by GEO and not LEO satellites [35].
In 2019, the Rwandan Government partnered with OneWeb, a UK-based company, to launch the “Icyerekezo” satellite, with the aim of providing broadband Internet access to Rwandan schools in remote areas [36]. The partnership is part of Rwanda’s Government’s determination to connect the unserved communities in the country. Moreover, the partnership provides access to educational content and allows remote communities to access economic opportunities and the government’s services.
In 2025, NIGCOMSAT (Nigeria’s governmental satellite operator) entered a multi-year, multimillion-dollar partnership with Eutelsat Group (via OneWeb) to deliver LEO satellite services across Nigeria. The initiative targets enhanced connectivity for government services, businesses, and underserved rural communities. This strategic partnership aims to bridge the digital divide in Nigeria through low latency high-speed Internet access to underserved and remote regions across the country, using LEO satellites [37].

7. Challenges of LEO Satellite Service Penetration in SSA and Possible Solutions

The LEO satellite network has the potential to improve Internet penetration in SSA but there are some challenges that may limit the use of LEO satellites for Internet services in the region. These challenges include service availability due to regulatory and licencing barriers, terminal and service affordability, network congestion in high-demand urban areas due to LEO satellite capacity shortage, and ground infrastructure gaps (limited ground stations (gateways) and electric power supply.
It is highly capital-intensive to launch and maintain LEO satellites and ground stations. Moreover, LEO satellites have a limited operational lifespan, and therefore, there is a need for regular replacement of LEO satellites in orbit with a new generation of the satellites. This constitutes a major challenge because Internet service providers and governments in SSA can hardly afford to deploy and maintain the large number of LEO satellites required to provide continuous Internet coverage. Thus, the visible solution is for Internet service providers and governments in SSA to partner with global LEO service providers such as Starlink, Oneweb, Eutelsat, etc., for LEO satellite Internet services.
Another challenge of using LEO services in SSA is the regulatory and licencing barrier. In some SSA countries, LEO satellite Internet services are not available or are limited by regulatory and licencing hurdles. The hurdles can be in form of delay in landing rights, spectrum allocation, or updating of telecommunication licencing frameworks to include licencing of LEO satellite services. Also, the hurdle could also be government requirements for local ownership of a certain percentage of the foreign LEO company. Moreover, the hurdles could arise from concerns about data sovereignty, possibility of data misuse and surveillance because of the control of essential telecommunication networks by foreign LEO Internet service providers. Thus, LEO service operators, such as Starlink, wanting to provide Internet services are finding it difficult to do so in some SSA countries because of government regulatory hurdles. Governments in SSA countries can ease this challenge by hastening the formulation of necessary policies for spectrum allocation and licencing of LEO satellites, streamlining the licencing approval process, and facilitate partnerships between foreign LEO satellite service providers and local Internet service providers.
Affordability of LEO satellite terminals and services is another major issue that will limit the use of the LEO satellite Internet service in SSA, especially in rural areas where the income level is low. As illustrated for mobile broadband networks in Figure 1, affordability of mobile terminals and services is a major reason for the wide margin between coverage gap and usage gap. This margin will be wider in LEO satellite networks because devices and services are more expensive. Table 5 shows the cost of LEO kits and services in some SSA countries. As shown in Table 5, the service cost per month in SSA varies from USD 28 to USD 73, whereas the price of a standard kit varies from USD 341 to USD 568. The Starlink LEO kit and service prices are quite high for the masses in SSA considering that the SSA GDP per capita in 2024 was USD 1506.2. Another issue with the LEO pricing is that, unlike the mobile broadband network service pricing, there is no provision for flexible models. Moreover, government intervention in the form of subsidies from universal service funds is needed to ease the problem of affordability. Thus, Federal and state authorities in some advanced countries like USA and Canada are providing subsidies to qualified rural dwellers in their domain to enable them to subscribe to LEO Internet services.
For example, the Maine Connectivity Authority in the USA is enrolling eligible homes and businesses into their Working Internet ASAP Program to receive LEO satellite Internet services, equipment, and installation support. In a like manner, if governments in SSA countries could fully or partially cover the cost of LEO equipment and services for qualified homes, schools, hospitals, and community centres in rural and remote areas, it would ease the problem of affordability and enhance Internet penetration in the region.
Another challenge to be addressed is the network congestion in high-demand urban areas due to LEO satellite capacity shortage. Deficit of terrestrial network infrastructure in SSA has led to very high demand for Starlink Internet access in Urban areas, which resulted in a situation where Starlink services were temporarily halted in some major cities such as Lagos and Abuja in Nigeria; Harare in Zimbabwe, Lusaka in Zambia, and Nairobi in Kenya [30]. Provision of higher LEO satellite capacity in SSA will address this problem. Another issue that may affect LEO satellite Internet service provisioning in SSA is a limited number of ground infrastructure, point of presence (PoP), in the region. Initially, only one Starlink PoP located in Nigeria was deployed in SSA. Consequently, Internet connections for many East African users were routed through distant PoP in Nigeria or Europe, which resulted in increased latency. However, Starlink has deployed a second PoP located in Kenya. The deployment of the second PoP has reduced network latency for users in East Africa. Therefore, this challenge can be overcome by deploying more PoPs and by expanding LEO capacity in the affected countries in SSA.
Another issue that could limit the use of LEO satellite services is erratic power supply in some SSA countries. There is a need for consistent power supply for the continuous operation of LEO satellite receivers and other devices. To address this problem, solar powered batteries could be used to power satellite kits in rural and remote locations.

8. Conclusions

In this paper, we have analysed the problem of low Internet penetration and low mobile data traffic per active smartphone in Sub-Saharan Africa and discussed various factors contributing to low Internet penetration and usage in the region. We have discussed opportunities for a LEO satellite network in SSA with examples of deployment scenarios in some SSA countries. Unlike in developed countries where the LEO satellite network is used as a solution for providing Internet connectivity in rural and remote areas, in SSA, there is high demand for LEO satellite services in urban areas and there is a need for LEO services in rural and remote areas to enhance Internet penetration. Thus, many countries in the region have active LEO satellite services. However, there are challenges to LEO service penetration in SSA. In this paper, we have presented feasible LEO business models in SSA, discussed the challenges hindering the penetration of LEO satellite services, and proffer possible solutions to the challenges.

Author Contributions

Data curation, O.F. and S.F.; formal analysis, O.F. and S.F.; investigation, O.F. and S.F.; visualisation, O.F. and S.F.; writing—original draft, O.F. and S.F.; writing—review and editing, O.F. and S.F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analysed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Samuel Falowo was employed by the company IHS Towers, South Africa. The remaining author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Mobile Internet connectivity by region in 2024.
Figure 1. Mobile Internet connectivity by region in 2024.
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Figure 2. Mobile data traffic per active smartphone (GB per month) in SSA.
Figure 2. Mobile data traffic per active smartphone (GB per month) in SSA.
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Figure 3. Population coverage gap in different regions of the world (%).
Figure 3. Population coverage gap in different regions of the world (%).
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Figure 4. Smartphone adoption in different regions of the world (as a percentage of total connections in each region).
Figure 4. Smartphone adoption in different regions of the world (as a percentage of total connections in each region).
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Figure 5. Comparison of the affordability of mobile Internet service in different regions.
Figure 5. Comparison of the affordability of mobile Internet service in different regions.
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Figure 6. Comparison of mobile technology mix in 2024.
Figure 6. Comparison of mobile technology mix in 2024.
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Figure 7. Projected increase in the number of mobile broadband subscriptions in CEWA and SADC by 2030.
Figure 7. Projected increase in the number of mobile broadband subscriptions in CEWA and SADC by 2030.
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Figure 8. Fixed broadband subscriptions (per 100 people) in SSA.
Figure 8. Fixed broadband subscriptions (per 100 people) in SSA.
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Figure 9. Percentage of fixed broadband users of ten biggest economies in SSA.
Figure 9. Percentage of fixed broadband users of ten biggest economies in SSA.
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Figure 10. Percentage of individuals without access to a 3G network or higher in 2024.
Figure 10. Percentage of individuals without access to a 3G network or higher in 2024.
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Figure 11. LEO Internet service provisioning.
Figure 11. LEO Internet service provisioning.
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Figure 12. Backhauling of a standalone 4G/5G base station to the core network through a LEO satellite network under a B2B model.
Figure 12. Backhauling of a standalone 4G/5G base station to the core network through a LEO satellite network under a B2B model.
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Figure 13. Seamless handover of a subscriber from a mobile network to a LEO satellite network under the B2B model.
Figure 13. Seamless handover of a subscriber from a mobile network to a LEO satellite network under the B2B model.
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Table 1. Top mobile broadband network operators in SSA.
Table 1. Top mobile broadband network operators in SSA.
Mobile Broadband OperatorNumber of Active Data Subscribers in Millions (Year)Countries of Operation in SSA
MTN Group [14]161.7 (2025)South Africa, Nigeria, Ghana, Uganda, Rwanda, Zambia, South Sudan, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Benin, Guinea-Conakry, Congo-Brazzaville, Liberia, Guinea-Bissau, Sudan, Botswana, eSwatini
Airtel Africa [15]75.6 (2025)Nigeria, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Chad, DRC Congo, Gabon, Madagascar, Niger, Republic of the Congo, Seychelles.
Vodacom Group [16]63.218 (2025)South Africa, DRC, Lesotho, Mozambique, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Kenya,
Orange Africa [17]Not availableCameroon, DRC, Senegal, Mali, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Côte d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Liberia, Central African Republic, Madagascar, Botswana
Ethiopian Telecom [18]43.5 ( 2024)Ethiopia
Table 2. Fixed broadband networks in five SSA countries in 2024.
Table 2. Fixed broadband networks in five SSA countries in 2024.
CountryTotal Fixed Broadband NetworkCable ModemFTTXDSLOthers
South Africa [21]2,735,968-2,465,453241,94728,568
Nigeria (2025) [22]75,884----
Kenya [23]1,718,679188,5411,066,972137958
Angola [24]137,466----
Tanzania [25]84,674-83,201-1473
Table 3. Popular satellite service providers in SSA.
Table 3. Popular satellite service providers in SSA.
CountryMajor Satellite Internet Service Providers (Type of Satellite Used)Number of SubscribersType of Subscribers
Nigeria [22]Starlink (LEO), Eutelsat Konnect (GEO), Hyperia/YahClick (GEO), Phase3/YahClick (GEO)65,500Homes, small businesses, remote communities
South Africa
[21]		Eutelsat Konnect (GEO), MorClick YahClick/Hughes (GEO), Paratus (GEO), SEACOM Satellite (GEO and LEO), Vox and Q-Kon (LEO, GEO)13,667Homes, small businesses, corporate and remote offices
Kenya
[23]		Starlink (LEO), Eutelsat Konnect (GEO), NTvsat (GEO), Vizocom (GEO), GlobalTT/IPSEOS (GEO), Intersat Africa (GEO), 19,403Homes and businesses in cities, SMEs, rural areas, industrial/government clients, NGOs, corporate, maritime.
Angola
[24]		AngoSat 2 (GEO), Eutelsat Konnect (GEO), BusinessCom (GEO), -Homes, corporate institutions, NGO, maritime, educational and healthcare institutions
Tanzania
[25]		Eutelsat Konnect (GEO), NTvsat (GEO), NTvsat (GEO), GlobalTT/OneWeb (GEO and LEO)1080Homes and small businesses, remote sites, enterprises, government, maritime, industry, NGOs
Table 4. Comparison of VLEO, LEO, MEO, and GEO.
Table 4. Comparison of VLEO, LEO, MEO, and GEO.
Satellite TypeVLEOLEOMEOGEO
Altitude (km)160–450500–20002000–20,000~35,786
Visibility time with a minimum of 100 elevation (minutes)3.5–77–1445–4201440
Round trip latency (ms)5–1020–50100–250400–600
Orbital period (hours)~1.51.5–22–1224
Handover requirementvery highhighlowalmost zero
Propagation lossvery lowlowmediumhigh
Energy consumptionvery lowlowmediumhigh
Capacity scalabilityvery highhighmoderatelimited
Number of satellites required for global coverage>8040–805–403
Network complexityhighhighmediumlow
Table 5. Starlink kit and service fees for residential Internet service [29].
Table 5. Starlink kit and service fees for residential Internet service [29].
Country
(Data Cap)		Mini PackageStandard Package
Kit
(USD)		Monthly Fee (USD)Kit
(USD)		Monthly Fee (USD)
Nigeria2073738537
Zimbabwe--38950
Zambia2265044250
Ghana3037356873
Kenya 2085038450
Rwanda1792837828
Mozambique1992934129
Madagascar2025139351
Burundi1943336733
South Sudan2005038950
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Falowo, O.; Falowo, S. Low Internet Penetration in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Role of LEO Satellites in Addressing the Issue. Telecom 2026, 7, 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/telecom7010007

AMA Style

Falowo O, Falowo S. Low Internet Penetration in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Role of LEO Satellites in Addressing the Issue. Telecom. 2026; 7(1):7. https://doi.org/10.3390/telecom7010007

Chicago/Turabian Style

Falowo, Olabisi, and Samuel Falowo. 2026. "Low Internet Penetration in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Role of LEO Satellites in Addressing the Issue" Telecom 7, no. 1: 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/telecom7010007

APA Style

Falowo, O., & Falowo, S. (2026). Low Internet Penetration in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Role of LEO Satellites in Addressing the Issue. Telecom, 7(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/telecom7010007

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