Global Perspectives on and Research Challenges for Electric Vehicles
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Analysis of the Communities
- Grid-to-vehicle (G2V) is used in internal chargers.
- Vehicle-to-everything (V2X) uses bidirectional integrated chargers and allows distributed energy control to share stored energy. However, V2X is vulnerable to cyber–physical attacks and instability caused by time delay. There are proposals to solve this by using cyber resilience techniques, authentication protocols, and delay-tolerant techniques, through which the resilience of the V2X system to cyber–physical attacks and time delays can be increased.
- Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) uses the energy stored in the battery for the grid connection to provide services to the grid (active power demand regulation, reactive power compensation, peak shaving and valley filling of load demand, frequency and voltage regulation, harmonic compensation of grid current, improved reliability, and stability and efficiency of the system, among others).
- Vehicle-for-grid (V4G) is a special case of the V2G mode of operation to compensate harmonics in the line current and inject reactive power to improve the voltage profile of the system; it allows the G2V/V2G mode, and the remaining energy not used in this mode can only be used for reactive and harmonic power compensation during the V4G mode.
- Vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) is used to exchange charging energy between EVs, where EV owners can sell their surplus energy to other EV owners. This functionality can also be realized by V2V for EVs connected to smart homes and car parks.
- Vehicle-to-home (V2H) implements the V2G modes to provide a backup supply for connected loads in the home (connected appliances in a smart home) and V2V.
- Vehicle-to-load (V2L) is used to ensure a continuous supply to critical loads that cannot be left without power in case of main grid failure such as military sites, hospitals, data centers, etc. It is implemented as a special case of the V2H and V2V modes of operation for electric vehicle chargers.
3.2. Analysis of Authors and Documents on the Topic of EVs
3.3. Future Perspectives and Challenges
- Optimized charging techniques are required to balance charging time and battery life and also to incorporate additional protection to balance battery temperature during the charging process in order to avoid battery degradation [58]. Battery heating is a serious problem in the case of external charging, as external charging to increase the efficiency of charging stations mainly depends on the selection of power converter topologies [119].
- The latest generation of EVs have the vehicle-to-everything (V2X) mode of operation. Extensive research in the domain of power density, power level, converter topologies, and control techniques related to the V2X system is required to expand its commercialization. The implementation of the V2X system has an important role to play in future EVs [60].
- Among the technical challenges of future EVs is the coordination between different emerging charging technologies such as V2X, V2G, and VG4 [60].
- The modes of operation between G2V and V2G must solve the following challenges: transformer ageing, battery degradation and energy loss, harmonic distortion, voltage profile deterioration, and charging curve variation [119].
- Successful communication techniques are required, in which a communication link is created between charging and EV systems. Communication vulnerability (cyber-attack) and communication delay are among their challenges. In addition, it is recommended to integrate various vehicular communication technologies such as wireless access to meet the communication needs of various use cases [120].
- The challenges facing the fast charging station are to achieve good overall efficiency, reduced harmonics, low capital operating cost, and an efficient control algorithm to control the charging current [58].
- The challenges of the wireless charging station to be solved optimally are the design of the coils, the selection of a suitable compensation network, and the ability to transfer high power over a long distance [58]. Standardized wireless charging systems across different types of charging infrastructure and different classes of electric vehicles also require technological improvements [59].
- A global standard for chargers and connectors is required to make energy transfer more efficient and to standardize the associated systems. Currently there are standards depending on the country and vehicle model; if we want to make progress with EVs we must try to homogenize the criteria for selecting associated standards. Vehicle manufacturers must also agree to use a charging connector standard, although new EVs usually come with dual-connector models depending on the charging mode of operation. The standardization of charging systems and their connectors is a gap that remains to be solved [58].
- Charging times are long, from 3 to 12 h, although 80% can be charged in 30 min when using a fast charger. Public fast chargers are still rare in many cities due to their high investment cost. By having fast charging stations along the roadside, fast charging could play an important role in expanding the range of electric vehicles [121].
- The incorporation of autonomous driving technologies (ADT) in EVs is stimulating for the vehicle sharing industry and EV car sharing. Remaining challenges include planning the size of a fleet, vehicle relocation strategies such as mixed relocation strategies based on operators and users, vehicle route optimization, and government management policies to increase user demand such as parking fees and subsidy strategies.
- Research should be done to consider the spatial and temporal distribution of demand and the influence of dynamic demand-responsive pricing schemes for car sharing including EVs. In addition, subsidies may be the key to EV utilization for passengers with a car sharing platform, such as Uber. How to design subsidy mechanisms to promote EV sharing in a competitive environment, incorporating uncertainties in last-minute bookings, charging levels, driver choice behaviors, and energy prices in the models, are issues that need to be resolved. This topic raises many issues for future research [122].
- Regarding batteries and new charging technology, a battery exchange or leasing market has emerged. The battery leasing model may be more successful than the battery swap model during the early stages of EV adoption because the initial capital costs (land, building a facility, and maintaining a battery inventory) are much higher than the cost of installing a charging station [122]. The study of productive leasing models is based on a standardization of batteries that would limit battery stocking.
- Charging infrastructure can be a productive market, but there are investment and planning issues for charging infrastructure that need to be addressed in the face of the growing number of electric vehicles on the market [123], mainly due to the lack of government regulations and subsidies to support these infrastructures. In addition, this business requires standardization of the infrastructures and optimal planning of their location.
- Many of the potential markets still require profitable short-term business models.
- The social and market acceptability of a different technology than the conventional one is an issue that needs to be addressed. Increased acceptance of EV technology would enable mass production and could make the technology more economically viable for the consumer [58].
- Research on new batteries that have higher capacity, higher energy density, better safety, more efficient battery management, longer life cycles, and that are environmentally friendly [60].
- Higher capacity batteries will encourage the adoption of faster and more powerful charging methods, as well as improved wireless charging technology.
- The energy management system needs improvements to decrease costs and increase the life cycle of batteries; the trend in recent research is hybrid energy systems, but their commercialization requires robustness, low computational complexity, real-time control, accuracy, and overall optimization of the energy management system.
- Studies initially used life cycle assessment (LCA) as a method of assessing the environmental impacts of emerging technologies such as EVs, but it is insufficient to consider the economic and social impacts. Few studies assess socio-economic indicators at the macro level, except for life cycle cost analysis. Many studies link CO2 emission reduction as a precursor to driving EV expansion, but secondary effects, macroeconomic impacts, and impacts related to the global supply chain need to be considered as a comprehensive approach to help decision making in the event of conflicts in technology deployment [124].
- Another remaining challenge is the recycling of batteries, which, as noted, have toxic materials. If batteries are not carefully designed with end-of-life management in mind, dependence will simply shift from one non-renewable source (oil) to others (rare earth metals), which is an important issue for further study for the world’s green revolution [124].
- One remaining challenge is the coupling of the motor and battery for driving conditions and performance requirements (cost, efficiency, driving dynamics, and driving comfort).
- The selection of a power coupling architecture, together with the optimization of both the appropriate component size according to the architecture employed and the control strategy, will be the subject of future research. Although there are many examples of energy-efficient control strategies in the literature, they should be investigated to achieve dynamic coordinated control of the mode switching process, as it has a significant impact on vehicle handling and ride comfort [125].
- Efficiency improvement of the permanent-magnet synchronous motors (PMSM). Among the losses in this class of motors are copper losses, iron losses, friction losses, and dispersion losses. Iron losses have not been considered in previous works; however, several studies have found iron loss to be an important component of the total losses [126]. Therefore, ignoring iron losses will overestimate motor efficiency. Pei et al. (2022) point that copper losses and iron losses are greatly dependent on control strategies [127], and in the near future the PMSM efficiency optimization strategy with time-varying parameters should be studied.
- Increase the power density of the motor. This can be achieved through three approaches: increasing the speed of the motor; the use of new materials in the magnetic circuit, winding insulation, etc.; or the application of new technologies to the motor production [128].
- Direct torque control (DTC) has been used traditionally, but it results in large torque fluctuation. To solve the torque ripple problem, efforts are dedicated in the literature to overcome these issues and various improved methods are being proposed. One of them is to calculate the effective voltage vector action time in real time to guarantee the minimum torque ripple for current torque error [129]. Nasr et al. (2022) proposed a DTC strategy based on an effective duty ratio regulation to improve the torque performance in terms of the steady-state error and the ripple [130].
- In general, manufacturers are further converging on permanent-magnet motor designs for their superior efficiency and power density, but the sustainability of the permanent magnets depends on the recovery and recycling methods for these magnets in the automotive error [131]. Nasr et al. (2022) proposed a DTC strategy based on an effective duty-ratio regulation to improve the torque performance in terms of the steady-state error and the ripple [132].
- Interactions of EV charging operations with the grid must be considered to improve grid stability. In addition, a rigorous assessment of the environmental and economic impacts of large-scale charging infrastructure could help the development of the dynamic wireless power transfer (DWPT) [60].
- Charging infrastructure optimized according to an assumable forecast of the EV fleet and the distribution grid. Different studies have been conducted using AI-based algorithms, but decisions still need to be made not only on EV charging needs and the grid, but also considering the habits of EV users.
- The EV Market Study Community has identified several niche markets among which the optimal distribution of battery swapping stations (BSS), as well as the charging infrastructure, must consider the habits of EV users. Battery swapping is an efficient charging alternative and BSS can serve not only for battery swapping but also as an auxiliary backup supply for the distribution network.
- V2G technology has an outstanding challenge such as cyber security for smooth operation and to ensure network security. Network security and integrity for secure and seamless data transfer from electric vehicles to the grid. Another drawback is battery degradation. Although research is being done on methods to solve this such as battery swapping, which requires standardization of batteries and infrastructure for swap management [133].
- Regulatory policies on energy market prices, so that owners can consider the EV investment and its profitability by using the sale of their energy surplus to the distribution grid or planning loads in off-peak hours of the distribution grid.
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Indexed Name | H- Index | Citation Count | Document Count | Country | University | First Publication (Year) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gogotsi, Y. | 180 | 160,412 | 936 | United States | Drexel University | 2005 |
Dai, L. | 148 | 86,083 | 662 | United States | Case Western Reserve University | 2006 |
Blaabjerg, F. | 148 | 113,037 | 2912 | Denmark | Aalborg Universitet | 2005 |
Beck, H. | 139 | 100,327 | 1460 | Switzerland | University of Bern | 2007 |
Liu, J. | 138 | 80,785 | 496 | China | Beijing Forestry University | 2014 |
Amine, K. | 136 | 62,151 | 680 | United States | Stanford University | 2016 |
Chapín, F. | 135 | 100,129 | 432 | United States | University of Alaska Fairbanks | 2005 |
Chen, J. | 134 | 63,266 | 583 | China | Nankai University | 2005 |
Aurbach, D. | 131 | 71,805 | 738 | Israel | Bar-Ilan University | 2010 |
Poor, H. | 130 | 78,631 | 2150 | United States | Princeton University | 2013 |
Liu, H. | 129 | 64,488 | 1206 | Australia | University of Wollongong | 2005 |
Dou S. | 128 | 75,307 | 1875 | Australia | University of Wollongong | 2014 |
Sun, Y. | 127 | 64,493 | 702 | South Korea | Hanyang University | 2013 |
Liu, M. | 126 | 54,155 | 732 | United States | Georgia Institute of Technology | 2005 |
Gao, H. | 123 | 46,696 | 719 | China | Harbin Institute of Technology | 2005 |
Gao, F. | 123 | 46,696 | 719 | China | Nanjing Agricultural University | 2009 |
Kuss, M. | 116 | 46,395 | 337 | Italy | Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Pisa | 2007 |
Giannakis, G. | 114 | 52,728 | 1153 | United States | University of Minnesota Twin Cities | 2010 |
Cho, J. | 114 | 48,489 | 389 | South Korea | Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology | 2005 |
Wong, C. | 114 | 52,241 | 1570 | United States | Georgia Institute of Technology | 2005 |
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Novas, N.; Garcia Salvador, R.M.; Portillo, F.; Robalo, I.; Alcayde, A.; Fernández-Ros, M.; Gázquez, J.A. Global Perspectives on and Research Challenges for Electric Vehicles. Vehicles 2022, 4, 1246-1276. https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles4040066
Novas N, Garcia Salvador RM, Portillo F, Robalo I, Alcayde A, Fernández-Ros M, Gázquez JA. Global Perspectives on and Research Challenges for Electric Vehicles. Vehicles. 2022; 4(4):1246-1276. https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles4040066
Chicago/Turabian StyleNovas, Nuria, Rosa M. Garcia Salvador, Francisco Portillo, Isabel Robalo, Alfredo Alcayde, Manuel Fernández-Ros, and Jose A. Gázquez. 2022. "Global Perspectives on and Research Challenges for Electric Vehicles" Vehicles 4, no. 4: 1246-1276. https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles4040066
APA StyleNovas, N., Garcia Salvador, R. M., Portillo, F., Robalo, I., Alcayde, A., Fernández-Ros, M., & Gázquez, J. A. (2022). Global Perspectives on and Research Challenges for Electric Vehicles. Vehicles, 4(4), 1246-1276. https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles4040066