Off-Road Construction and Agricultural Equipment Electrification: Review, Challenges, and Opportunities
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Reference | Year | Topic |
---|---|---|
Yang et al. [17] | 2009 |
|
Parsons et al. [18] | 2014 |
|
Aydin et al. [19] | 2014 |
|
Wang et al. [16] | 2017 |
|
Kwon et al. [20] | 2010 |
|
Wang et al. [21] | 2009 |
|
Zhang et al. [22] | 2019 |
|
Moreda et al. [23] | 2016 |
|
2. Electric Powertrain Architectures in Different Off-Road Equipment Categories
2.1. General Off-Road Equipment
2.2. Construction Equipment
Reference | Year | EV Type | Components of Interest | Control Algorithm | Implementation Level | Equipment Type |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kwon et al. [20] | 2010 | HEV |
| Balancing power demand between a supercapacitor and the engine at each instance. | Simulation | Excavator |
Yao et al. [50] | 2013 | HEV |
| Combination of proportional (P) controller and mixed sensitivity controller. | Simulation and Hardware implementation | Excavator |
Xiao et al. [54] | 2008 | Parallel HEV |
| Dynamic work point. | Simulation | Excavator |
Lin et al. [51] | 2008 | Parallel HEV, Series HEV |
| Dynamic multi work point controller comprising of direct torque control, and closed loop proportional-integral (PI) control. | Simulation | Excavator |
Lee et al. [52] | 2013 | Parallel, series, and dual mode power split PHEV |
| Electric motor drives hydraulic pump, powered by battery; battery is charged by the generator run by ICE. | Simulation | Excavator |
Yoo et al. [53] | 2009 | Parallel, series, and compound HEV |
| Electric swing system, electric power assistance of ICE, regenerated energy stored in SC. | Simulation and hardware implementation | Excavator |
Ge et al. [55] | 2017 | HEV |
| Variable speed electric motor drives a variable displacement pump to meet the dynamic energy demand. | Simulation and hardware implementation | Excavator |
Wang et al. [65] | 2013 | HEV |
| Energy regeneration from swing system and boom. | Simulation | Excavator |
Mazumdar [59] | 2013 | BEV |
| Driven by overhead power supply. Regenerated energy stored in ESS to use in short driving distances. | Simulation | Off-highway truck |
Esfahanian et al. [57] | 2013 | HEV |
| Road grade data used for dynamic energy management. | - | Off-highway truck |
Reference | Manufacturer | Model | EV Type | Components of Interest | Control Strategy | Equipment Type | Implementation Level |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[36,66] | John Deere | 644K Hybrid Wheel Loader | HEV |
| No reverse gear as electric motor can perform this shift in direction, brake resistor consumes and dissipates excess energy generated during regenerative braking. | Skid steer loader/rubber-tired loader | Hardware implementation |
[37,38] | John Deere | 318E 320E 326E 328E 332E | HEV |
| - | Skid steer loader/rubber-tired loader | Hardware implementation |
[39] | Tobroco-Giant | GIANT E-skid steer | BEV |
| - | Skid steer loader/rubber-tired loader | Hardware implementation |
[44] | Caterpillar | R1300G LHD | BEV |
| Electric motor used to run mechanical drivetrain through electric motor. | Rubber-tired loader | Hardware implementation |
[40,41] | Caterpillar | 988K XE | HEV |
| - | Rubber-tired loader | Hardware implementation |
[16] | Kobelco (modified) | 70SR | HEV |
| Energy supplied to the electrical load from the battery when needed, and absorbed during braking. | Excavator | - |
[16,67] | Kobelco | SK80H | HEV |
| Battery charging and discharging limit set according to concurrent state-of-charge to ensure maximum efficiency and lifetime. | Excavator | Simulation |
[16] | Caterpillar | - | Parallel HEV |
| Operating mode and torque set according to load variation and SOC. | Excavator | - |
[16] | Komatsu | - | HEV |
| Separate use of hydraulic motor and generator. | Excavator | - |
[16,67] | Hitachi | - | Parallel HEV |
| Control system comprised of master and slave controllers where the slave is used to monitor and govern the SC charge-discharge. | Excavator | - |
[16] | Doosan | - | HEV |
| - | Excavator | - |
[16,48,49] | Kobelco | - | Series HEV |
| ESS assists during heavy load and stores surplus energy under light loads. Engine works in high efficiency region all the time, even stops when ESS energy is sufficient to drive loads. | Excavator | - |
[16] | Sumitomo | - | HEV |
| SC SoC set to a higher value to drive load at higher voltage with better efficiency. | Excavator | - |
[56] | Komatsu | 830E (modified) | Series HEV |
| Battery used to recover braking energy to be deployed for power boost or enhanced engine efficiency. | Off-highway truck | Simulation and hardware implementation |
[58] | Komatsu | 830E-1AC | Series HEV |
| - | Off-highway truck | Commercially available |
[68] | Komatsu | 930E-4 | Diesel-electric with dynamic braking |
| - | Off-highway truck | Commercially available |
[69] | Caterpillar | 795F AC Mining Truck | Diesel-electric with dynamic braking |
| - | Off-highway truck | Commercially available |
[60] | Komatsu | 605-7 (modified) | BEV |
| The battery powers the motor and stores regenerative energy. | Off-highway truck | Hardware implementation |
2.3. Agricultural Equipment
3. Energy Recovery
4. Promises and Concerns of Off-Road Equipment Electrification
4.1. Advantages
4.2. Limitations and Solutions
4.3. Current Barriers
5. Proposals for Off-Road Equipment Electrification
6. Outcomes and Future Works
- Among the pieces of construction equipment, excavator and off-highway truck electrification attracted the most attention; efficiency gains and cost reduction have driven the commercialization of diesel-electric off-highway trucks.
- Tractors were studied in a number of reviewed studies on agricultural equipment.
- Tractor–loader–backhoes, loaders, and scrapers in the construction equipment category, and tractors from the agricultural equipment sector demand increased research on electrification potential due to their high population and impact on emissions.
- With current technology, hybrids can appear useful for immediate implementation.
- Along with batteries, supercapacitors attracted significant attention, as the equipment tends to have a high power requirement. For the same reason, intermediate hydraulic energy storage and hybrid energy storage employing batteries and supercapacitors can prove beneficial for heavy-duty equipment usage.
- Along with the braking system, there are opportunities for energy regeneration from power tools employed by off-road equipment; prominent examples being the boom and swing of excavators.
- Electrification of off-road equipment can offer significant benefits in terms of increased efficiency and lower operating cost.
- The general shortcomings of EVs, including short range and long charging time, can translate into concerns about decreased downtime for off-road equipment. The higher cost further challenges their acceptance in a competitive market. However, increased research and development can aid in overcoming the current issues.
- An immediate solution to facilitating successful electrification of off-road equipment is retrofitting along with the use of range extenders, on-site power generation, and mobile chargers.
- Feasible existing and emerging technologies, and approaches for off-road equipment electrification considering the duty cycles, load factors, use case, and infrastructure requirement of different pieces of equipment.
- Ways to efficiently recapture energy in off-road equipment.
- Feasibility of mobile ICE and fuel cell generators for off-road equipment charging.
- Impact of regulations and incentives on the off-road equipment market.
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Reference | Year | EV Type | Components of Interest | Control Algorithm | Potential Vehicle Application | Implementation Level |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Saeks et al. [32] | 2002 | FCEV |
|
|
| Simulation |
Zhang et al. [27] | 2008 | Parallel PHEV |
|
|
| Simulation |
Baronti et al. [31] | 2013 | General |
| - |
| Simulation |
Parsons et al. [18] | 2014 | Series HEV |
| - |
| Simulation andHardware implementation |
Sinkko et al. [30] | 2014 | HEV |
| - |
| Simulation |
Reference | Year | EV Type | Components of Interest | Control Algorithm | Implementation Level | Equipment Type |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Usinin et al. [72] | 2013 | Series HEV |
| Separate excitation for generator and motor, motor torque control by controlling armature current and magnetic flux. | Simulation | Tractor |
Mousazadeh et al. [73] | 2010 | BEV |
| Solar panel supplied 18% of required power, rest taken from grid. | Simulation and hardware implementation | Tractor |
Ueka et al. [70] | 2013 | BEV |
| A rotary tiller along with the four wheels driven by the motor through reduction gear. | Simulation and hardware implementation | Tractor |
Rossi et al. [75] | 2014 | Parallel HEV |
| Set up for using ICE’s maximum torque operating region. | Simulation and hardware implementation | Tractor |
Gonzalez-de-Soto et al. [25] | 2016 | ICE vehicle with fuel cell-powered PTO |
| The fuel cell system powers the PTO, while ICE runs the drivetrain. Battery stores excess energy. | Simulation and hardware implementation | Tractor |
Reference | Manufacturer | Model | EV Type | Components of Interest | Control Strategy | Equipment Type | Implementation Level |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[71] | Ruselprom | Belarus-3023 | Series HEV |
| ICE powered electric drivetrain, electricity driven PTO. | Tractor | Pre-production versions produced |
[77] | New Holland | NH2 | FCEV |
| Traction and PTO operation handled by separate motors. | Tractor | Hardware implementation |
Reference | Year | Regenerative Component | Vehicle Application | Implementation Level | Equipment Type |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Minav et al. [81] | 2013 | Lift | Construction | Simulation | Forklift |
Mazumdar [58] | 2013 | Brake | Construction | Simulation | Off-highway truck |
Esfahanian et al. [57] | 2013 | Brake | Construction | - | |
[60] | 2017 | Brake | Construction | Hardware implementation | |
Yoon et al. [45] | 2013 | Boom | Construction | Simulation | Excavator |
Wang et al. [86] | 2014 | Hydraulic cylinder | Construction | Simulation | |
Lin et al. [84] | 2016 | Boom | Construction | Simulation and hardware implementation | |
Lin et al. [85] | 2010 | Boom | Construction | Simulation | |
Chen et al. [87] | 2017 | Boom | Construction | Simulation and hardware implementation | |
Yoo et al. [53] | 2009 | Swing | Construction | Simulation and hardware implementation | |
Wang et al. [65] | 2013 | Swing and boom | Construction | Simulation | |
Singh et al. [80] | 2009 | Turbocharger | Construction Agriculture | - | All turbocharged equipment |
Yu et al. [88] | 2015 | Turbocharger | Construction Agriculture | - | |
Åman et al. [89] | 2013 | Electro-hybrid actuator | Construction Agriculture | Simulation | Off-highway equipment |
Implication | Environmental | Operational | Economic | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Advantage | ||||
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
| |
|
|
|
| |
| - |
|
|
Concern | Solution | |
---|---|---|
Technical issues | Short range |
|
Long charging time |
| |
Dynamic and high power requirement |
| |
Logistics issues | Lack of research |
|
Inadequate charging infrastructure |
| |
Charging station placement |
| |
Market issues | Cost |
|
Competition |
|
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Un-Noor, F.; Wu, G.; Perugu, H.; Collier, S.; Yoon, S.; Barth, M.; Boriboonsomsin, K. Off-Road Construction and Agricultural Equipment Electrification: Review, Challenges, and Opportunities. Vehicles 2022, 4, 780-807. https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles4030044
Un-Noor F, Wu G, Perugu H, Collier S, Yoon S, Barth M, Boriboonsomsin K. Off-Road Construction and Agricultural Equipment Electrification: Review, Challenges, and Opportunities. Vehicles. 2022; 4(3):780-807. https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles4030044
Chicago/Turabian StyleUn-Noor, Fuad, Guoyuan Wu, Harikishan Perugu, Sonya Collier, Seungju Yoon, Mathew Barth, and Kanok Boriboonsomsin. 2022. "Off-Road Construction and Agricultural Equipment Electrification: Review, Challenges, and Opportunities" Vehicles 4, no. 3: 780-807. https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles4030044
APA StyleUn-Noor, F., Wu, G., Perugu, H., Collier, S., Yoon, S., Barth, M., & Boriboonsomsin, K. (2022). Off-Road Construction and Agricultural Equipment Electrification: Review, Challenges, and Opportunities. Vehicles, 4(3), 780-807. https://doi.org/10.3390/vehicles4030044