Timing Matters: The Interplay between Early Mealtime, Circadian Rhythms, Gene Expression, Circadian Hormones, and Metabolism—A Narrative Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Search Methods
3. A Brief History of Meal Timings
4. Regulation and Control of the Circadian Body Clocks
5. Clock Genes and Circadian Rhythms
6. Mealtime and Cardiometabolic Risk
7. Dawn and Dusk Feeding Time: The Transition from Fasting to Feeding and Feeding to Fasting
7.1. Time of the Day and Clock Genes
7.2. Early Morning Meal
7.3. Energy Expenditure and Circadian Rhythm
7.4. Mealtime, Insulin Sensitivity, and Glucose Response
7.5. Early Breakfast or No Early Breakfast
7.6. Skipping Breakfast and Genetics
7.7. Evening and Late-Night Meals
8. The Interaction between Mealtime and Circadian Hormones
8.1. Cortisol
8.2. Melatonin
8.3. Other Mechanisms
9. Meal Timing, Circadian Rhythm, and Gut Microbiota
10. Concluding Remarks and Future Directions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Authors (Year) | Study Design | Main Results |
---|---|---|
Nakamura K. et al., 2021 [100] | A randomized cross-over trial assessed the effect of early evening meals on blood glucose levels and postprandial lipid metabolism in healthy adults. Twelve participants (two males and ten females) completed a 3-day study, alternating between late (21:00) and early (18:00) dinners. Continuous blood glucose monitoring and metabolic measurements were conducted on day 3 using indirect calorimetry | Significant differences between the two groups were observed in mean 24 h blood glucose levels on day 2. There was a significant decrease in the postprandial respiratory quotient 30 min and 60 min after breakfast on day 3 in the early dinner group compared with the late dinner group. |
Xie Z. et al., 2022 [104] | A randomized controlled trial compared two TRF regimens (early and midday) in healthy non-obese individuals. In total, 90 participants were randomized to eTRF (n = 30), mTRF (n = 30), or control groups (n = 30), and 82 participants completed the five-week trial and were analyzed (28 in eTRF, 26 in mTRF, 28 in control groups). Primary outcome: change in insulin resistance. | eTRF was more effective than mTRF at improving insulin sensitivity; eTRF, but not mTRF, improved fasting glucose, reduced total body mass and adiposity, ameliorated inflammation, and increased gut microbial diversity. |
Bo S. et al., 2015 [96] | A randomized cross-over study assessed food-induced thermogenesis in morning and evening. Twenty subjects received the same standard meal in the morning and, 7 days later, in the evening (or vice versa). Calorimetry and blood sampling were performed at specific time intervals. General linear models were used to evaluate the “morning effect” compared to the evening effect. | Fasting resting metabolic rate (RMR) remained unchanged between morning and evening. After-meal RMR was significantly higher following the morning meal compared with the evening meal. RMR increased significantly after the morning meal. Glucose, insulin, and fatty acid concentrations showed delayed and larger increases after the evening meals. |
Bandin C. et al., 2015 [95] | In a randomized cross-over trial, thirty-two women completed two randomized cross-over protocols: one protocol (P1) included an assessment of resting energy expenditure (indirect-calorimetry) and glucose tolerance (mixed-meal test) (n = 10) and the other (P2) included circadian-related measurements based on profiles in salivary cortisol and wrist temp. (T wrist) (n = 22). In each protocol, participants were provided with standardized meals during the two meal intervention weeks and were studied under two lunch-eating conditions: Early eating (EE; lunch at 01:00 p.m.) and late eating (LE; lunch at 04:30 p.m.). | LE, compared with EE, resulted in decreased pre-meal resting-energy expenditure, a lower pre-meal protein-corrected respiratory quotient (CRQ), and a changed post-meal profile of CRQ. These changes reflected a significantly lower pre-meal utilization of carbohydrates in LE versus EE. LE also increased glucose area under the curve above baseline by 46%, demonstrating decreased glucose tolerance. Changes in the daily profile of cortisol and T wrist were also found with LE blunting the cortisol profile, with lower morning and afternoon values, and suppressing the postprandial response. |
Manoogian E.N.C. et al., 2022 [98] | In a randomized control trial including 137 firefighters who worked 24 h shifts (23–59 years old, 9% female), 12 weeks of 10 h time-restricted eating (TRE) was feasible, with TRE participants decreasing their eating window (baseline, mean 02:13 p.m., 95% CI 13.78–14.47 h; intervention, 11:13 a.m., 95% CI 10:73–11:54 h, p = 3.29 × 10−17). | Compared with the standard of care (SOC) arm, TRE significantly decreased VLDL particle size. In participants with elevated cardiometabolic risks at baseline, there were significant reductions in TRE compared with SOC in glycated hemoglobin A1C and diastolic blood pressure. |
Qian J. et al., 2018 [102] | Using a randomized cross-over trial, the study aimed to discern the individual and combined effects of the circadian system and environmental/behavioral cycles, particularly circadian misalignment, on insulin sensitivity and β-cell functionality. This assessment was performed using the minimal oral model on 14 healthy individuals over two 8-day laboratory sessions. Each session started with 3 days under regular sleep/wake patterns. This was then followed by 4 days where participants either maintained their usual bedtime (indicating circadian alignment) or shifted to a 12-h inverted schedule, leading to circadian misalignment. | Data showed that the circadian phase and circadian misalignment affected glucose tolerance through different mechanisms. While the circadian system reduced glucose tolerance in the biological evening compared with the biological morning mainly by decreasing both dynamic and static β-cell responsivity, circadian misalignment reduced glucose tolerance mainly by lowering insulin sensitivity not by affecting β-cell function. |
Collado M.C. et al., 2018 [97] | In a cross-over trial involving 10 healthy, young, normal-weight females, the researchers investigated the influence of meal timing on the human microbiota present in both saliva and fecal samples. Their goal was to see if consuming food later in the day affects the daily patterns of human salivary microbiota. To delve deeper into this, they analyzed the salivary microbiota from samples taken at four distinct intervals over a 24-h period, aiming to shed more light on the link between when one eats and potential metabolic changes in humans. | A significant diurnal rhythm in salivary diversity and relative bacterial abundance (i.e., TM7 and Fusobacteria) across both early and late eating conditions was found. Meal timing affected diurnal rhythms in a diversity of salivary microbiota toward an inverted rhythm between eating conditions, and eating late increased the number of putative pro-inflammatory taxa, showing a diurnal rhythm in the saliva. |
Pizinger T. et al., 2018 [101] | Using a randomized control trial, the study aimed to assess how sleep and meal timings individually and collectively influenced insulin sensitivity (Si) in overweight individuals. The study enrolled six participants, comprising four men and two women, though one participant did not finish. The trial used a 4-phase inpatient cross-over design, which varied based on sleep schedules: either standard (Ns: from midnight to 8:00 a.m.) or delayed (Ls: from 3:30 a.m. to 11:30 a.m.). Meal timings also varied: either regular (Nm: at intervals of 1-, 5-, 11-, and 12.5-h post-waking) or delayed (Lm: at intervals of 4.5-, 8.5-, 14.5-, and 16-h post-waking). After three days in each phase, Si was evaluated using an insulin-modified frequently sampled intravenous glucose tolerance test at the designated breakfast time and a meal tolerance test at the designated lunchtime. | Mealtime influenced concentrations of glucose (p = 0.012) and insulin (p = 0.069) during the overnight hours. Average cortisol concentrations between 22:00 and 07:00 h tended to be affected by mealtime. Melatonin concentrations from the overnight sampling period showed no effect on mealtime. |
Morris C.J. et al., 2016 [99] | Using a randomized cross-over study, the study aimed to test the hypothesis that the endogenous circadian system and circadian misalignment separately affect glucose tolerance in shift workers, both independently from behavioral cycle effects, including nine healthy subjects. The intervention included simulated night work comprised of 12 h inverted behavioral and environmental cycles (circadian misalignment) or simulated day work (circadian alignment). Postprandial glucose and insulin responses to identical meals given at 8:00 a.m. and 8:00 p.m. were measured in both protocols. | Circadian misalignment increased postprandial glucose by 5.6% independent of behavioral and circadian effects (p = 0.0042). |
Sharma A. et al., 2017 [103] | Using a randomized control trial, the study aimed to determine the effect of rotational shift work on glucose metabolism. Using a randomized cross-over study design, 12 healthy nurses performing rotational shift work underwent an isotope-labeled mixed meal test during a simulated day shift and a simulated night shift, enabling simultaneous measurement of glucose flux and beta cell function using the oral minimal model. | Postprandial glycemic excursion was higher during the night shift. The time to peak insulin, C-peptide, and nadir glucagon suppression in response to meal ingestion was also delayed during the night shift. While insulin action did not differ between study days, the beta cell responsivity to glucose and disposition index were decreased during the night shift. |
Vujovic N. et al., 2022 [107] | A randomized, controlled, cross-over trial with 18 subjects was used to determine the effects of late versus early eating while rigorously controlling for nutrient intake, physical activity, sleep, and light exposure. The parameters measured were subjective (hunger) and objective (hormones related to metabolism) | Late eating increased hunger and altered appetite-regulating hormones, increasing waketime and the 24 h ghrelin leptin ratio (p < 0.0001 and p = 0.006, respectively). Furthermore, late eating decreased waketime energy expenditure and 24 h core body temperature. |
Jamshed H. et al., 2019 [65] | This study used a 4-day randomized crossover design to investigate the impact of time-restricted feeding (TRF) on gene expression, circulating hormones, and diurnal patterns in cardiometabolic risk factors. Eleven overweight adults participated in the study, following two different eating schedules: early TRF (eTRF) from 8 a.m. to 2 p.m. and a control schedule from 8 a.m. to 8 p.m. Continuous glucose monitoring was conducted, and blood samples were collected to assess various factors. | eTRF resulted in improved glucose levels and glycemic excursions compared with the control schedule. In the morning, eTRF increased ketones, cholesterol, and the expression of stress response and aging gene SIRT1, as well as the autophagy gene LC3A. In the evening, eTRF tended to increase brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) and significantly increased the expression of MTOR, a protein involved in nutrient sensing and cell growth. Additionally, eTRF altered diurnal patterns in cortisol levels and the expression of circadian clock genes. |
Lowe D.A. et al., 2020 [108] | In this 12-week randomized clinical trial, participants (n = 116) were divided into two groups: the consistent meal timing (CMT) group, instructed to consume three structured meals per day, and the time-restricted eating (TRE) group, instructed to eat ad libitum from 12:00 p.m. until 8:00 p.m. The study aimed to investigate the impact of 16:8 h time-restricted eating on weight loss and metabolic risk markers. The study utilized a custom mobile study application, with in-person testing for a subset of 50 participants. | The TRE group had significant weight loss compared with the CMT group. The TRE group also had significant weight loss within the in-person cohort. Furthermore, the two groups showed a significant difference in appendicular lean mass index. No significant changes were observed in other secondary outcomes within or between the groups. Estimated energy intake did not differ significantly between the groups. |
Hutchison A.T. et al., 2019 [105] | In this randomized controlled trial, the impact of 9 h TRF on glucose tolerance in men at risk for type 2 diabetes was assessed. Fifteen male middle-aged, obese participants wore a continuous glucose monitor for 7 days during the baseline assessment and two 7-day TRF conditions. They were randomly assigned to either early TRF (TRFe) from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. or delayed TRF (TRFd) from 12 p.m. to 9 p.m., with a 2-week washout phase between conditions. Glucose, insulin, triglycerides, nonesterified fatty acids, and gastrointestinal hormone levels were measured and analyzed. | The results demonstrated that both TRFe and TRFd improved glucose tolerance, as evidenced by a reduction in glucose incremental area under the curve and fasting triglycerides (p = 0.003) on day 7 compared with day 0. However, no significant interactions between mealtime and TRF existed for any of the variables examined. TRF did not significantly affect fasting or postprandial insulin, nonesterified fatty acids, or gastrointestinal hormone levels. As measured using continuous glucose monitoring, mean fasting glucose was lower in TRFe but not in TRFd compared to baseline, with no significant difference observed between the two TRF conditions. |
Jones R. et al., 2020 [106] | This randomized controlled trial investigated the chronic effects of early TRF (eTRF) compared to an energy-matched control on insulin and anabolic sensitivity in healthy males. In total, 16 young, lean participants were assigned to eTRF (n = 8) or control/caloric restriction (CON:CR; n = 8) groups. The eTRF group followed the eTRF diet for 2 weeks, restricting daily energy intake to the period between 08:00 and 16:00. The CON:CR group underwent a calorie-matched control diet after the eTRF intervention. Metabolic responses were assessed before and after the interventions, following a 12 h overnight fast, using a carbohydrate/protein drink. | The results showed that eTRF improved whole-body insulin sensitivity compared with CON:CR, with a between-group difference of 1.89. eTRF also enhanced skeletal muscle uptake of glucose (between-group difference: 4266 μmol·min−1·kg−1·180 min; 95% CI: 261, 8270; p = 0.04; η2p = 0.31) and branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs). The eTRF group experienced a reduction in energy intake (approximately 400 kcal·d−1) and weight loss, which was comparable to the weight loss observed in the CON:CR group |
Blum et al., 2023 [109] | In a trial with 15 adults who typically slept late, the participants were randomly assigned to follow either early time-restricted eating (eTRE) practices or a general sleep and nutrition regimen, both introduced using a video session. Sleep patterns were monitored over three weeks, encompassing an initial baseline week and a two-week intervention phase. | Those following early eTRE began their sleep cycle earlier and woke up sooner than those in the control group. Although eTRE participants showed a minor uptick in sleep duration, the change was not notably significant. The results suggest eTRE’s potential in adjusting late sleep habits. |
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BaHammam, A.S.; Pirzada, A. Timing Matters: The Interplay between Early Mealtime, Circadian Rhythms, Gene Expression, Circadian Hormones, and Metabolism—A Narrative Review. Clocks & Sleep 2023, 5, 507-535. https://doi.org/10.3390/clockssleep5030034
BaHammam AS, Pirzada A. Timing Matters: The Interplay between Early Mealtime, Circadian Rhythms, Gene Expression, Circadian Hormones, and Metabolism—A Narrative Review. Clocks & Sleep. 2023; 5(3):507-535. https://doi.org/10.3390/clockssleep5030034
Chicago/Turabian StyleBaHammam, Ahmed S., and Abdulrouf Pirzada. 2023. "Timing Matters: The Interplay between Early Mealtime, Circadian Rhythms, Gene Expression, Circadian Hormones, and Metabolism—A Narrative Review" Clocks & Sleep 5, no. 3: 507-535. https://doi.org/10.3390/clockssleep5030034