Risk Analysis of Firefighting and Rescue Operations in High-Rise Buildings: An Exploratory Study Utilising a System Dynamics Approach

High-rise buildings present substantial challenges for firefighting and rescue operations owing to their considerable height. The stack effect, which becomes more pronounced with increasing building height, accelerates smoke propagation and significantly increases the likelihood of casualties. This study identifies and analyzes the risks associated with fire incidents in high-rise residential buildings. A 49-story building was selected as the reference model, and population density was applied to estimate occupant numbers for the risk assessment. For the damage scenario, one disaster-vulnerable individual per household was assumed. The simulation results revealed that firefighters and vulnerable occupants were exposed to smoke within 541 s. The findings of this study indicate that the stack effect, amplified by building height, exacerbates fire and smoke spread, thereby increasing firefighting risks and potential casualties. These results highlight fire incidents in high-rise structures as a critical category of urban disaster. Furthermore, the study underscores the limitations of existing firefighting facilities in addressing such scenarios and emphasizes the urgent need for new paradigms in firefighting strategies and smoke control technologies to mitigate the risks associated with the stack effect.