New In-Flame Flammability Testing Method Applied to Monitor Seasonal Changes in Live Fuel
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Fuel Element’s Energy Release Contribution to the Incoming Frontal Flame
2.2. Fuel Samples
2.3. Field Sampling
2.4. Test Sequence
2.5. Biophysical Characteristics
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Heat Transfer
Figure 2 | Fire Type | Flame Length (m) | Flame- Front Residence Time (s) | Total Heat Transfer (kW m−2) | Peak Convective Heat Transfer | Peak Radiative Heat Transfer | Location, Fire Name | Source | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
kW m−2 | % | kW m−2 | % | |||||||
Needle cast | Surface | 30 | 37 | [71] | ||||||
Mixed grasses, needle cast | Surface | 0.83 | 42 | 22 | 20 | Rombo 1 | [55] | |||
Surface | 0.39 | 4 | 13 | 24 | Eglin 2 | [55] | ||||
Surface | 1.59 | 12 | 107 | 115 | Ichauway 1 | [55] | ||||
Surface | 082 | 9 | 100 | 105 | Ichauway 2 | [55] | ||||
Surface | 0.84 | 22 | 140 | 90 | Ichauway 3 | [55] | ||||
Surface | 1.25 | 11 | 82 | 59 | Ichauway 4 | [55] | ||||
Shrubs, scrubs | 30–120 | 40–50 | Mediterranean | [71] | ||||||
112 | 51 | [72] | ||||||||
Mixed | 6.5 | 21 | 113 | 51 | 45 | Experiment 1 | [73] | |||
Mixed | 6.8 | 31 | 120 | 62 | 52 | Experiment 2 | [73] | |||
Mixed | 8.4 | 27 | 110 | 50 | 45 | Experiment 3 | [73] | |||
Mixed | 5.1 | 25 | 83 | 36 | 43 | Experiment 4 | [73] | |||
Mixed | 6.1 | 26 | 101 | 34 | 34 | Experiment 5 | [73] | |||
Needle cast, grass, shrubs, brush, or sagebrush | Surface | 1.25 | 17 | 60 | 75 | Eglin 1 | [55] | |||
Brush | 2.4 | 40 | 94 | 130 | Rombo 2 | [55] | ||||
Brush | 1.44 | 10 | 26 | 120 | Leadore 1 | [55] | ||||
Brush | 1.44 | 10 | 19 | 132 | Leadore 2 | [55] | ||||
105–120 | 30–60 | [71] | ||||||||
32–42 | 100–120 | 25–50 | [71] | |||||||
Forest | Crown | 30 | 42 | 300 | Rat Creek | [55] | ||||
Crown | 20 | 50 | 32 | 189 | Mill Creek | [55] | ||||
Crown | 37 | 120–300 | [71] |
3.2. Energy Release Reductions
3.3. Flammability Definition and Numerical Fuel Classification
3.4. Energy Balance
3.5. Stand-Scale Flammability
3.6. Seasonal Variation and Drivers of Flammability
3.7. Limitations and Future Research
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
Energy-related variables and definitions | |
H | Heat of combustion, dry mass basis (kJ g−1) |
Hgross | Gross heat of combustion, dry mass basis (calorific content) (kJ g−1) |
EC | Energy content, equivalent to Hgross expressed on fresh mass basis (kJ g−1) |
Heff | Effective heat of combustion, mass loss basis (kJ g−1) |
∆e+ | Flammability as fuel element’s contribution to the energy release of the incoming flame, per fuel element/sample (kJ) |
∂Heff | Flammability as differential effective heat of combustion, which represents ∆e+ per unit fresh mass or mass loss of fuel element/sample (kJ g−1) |
Other variables and definitions | |
DM | Dry matter content, fresh mass basis (%) |
FIZ | Flames interaction zone |
FMC | Foliar moisture content, dry mass basis (%) |
Shoots | Twigs/branchwood 0–9 mm thick with the attached foliage |
SWCfm | Shoot water content, fresh mass basis (%) |
SWCdm | Shoot water content, dry mass basis (analogous to FMC, but for shoots instead of foliage alone) (%) |
SWCvol | Shoot water content, volume basis (g cm−3) |
Appendix A. Additional Figures
Appendix B. Historical Seasonality of Extreme Crown Fire Behavior in Canada
Wildfire Name and Location | Year | Start Date | End Date | Size (ha) | Human Lives Lost | Evacuated | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Great Miramichi Fire, NB | 1825 | 7 October | - | 1,200,000 | 160+ (500+ unofficially) | [80] | |
Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean Fire, QC | 1870 | 19 May | 19 May/27 May | 400,000 | 7 | [80,81] | |
The Great Fire, Ottawa Valley, ON | 1870 | 1 August | 28 August | 51,200+ | 20+ | 8000+ | [81] |
Fernie Fire, BC | 1908 | 1 August | 1 August | 25,900 | 22+ | [80] | |
Baudette Fire/Rainy River Fire, MN and ON | 1910 | 7 October | 7 October | 121,500 | 42+ | [80] | |
Great Porcupine Fire, AB and ON | 1911 | 11 July | 11 July | 200,000/ 804,650 | 73+ (in the hundreds unofficially) | 200 | [80,82] |
Great Matheson Fire, AB and ON | 1916 | 29 July | 3 August/29 July | 200,000 | 223+ (as high as 400 unofficially) | 8000 | [80,82] |
Lac La Biche Fire, AB and SK | 1919 | 19 May | Early June | 2,800,000 | 13+ | [80,83] | |
Great Fire of 1922 Haileybury, ON | 1922 | 30 September | 5 October | 168,000/ 518,000 | 43+ (as high as 150 unofficially) | 11,000 | [80,82] |
Rainy River and Dance Township Fire, ON | 1938 | 10 October | 15 October | 30,355/ 37,230 | 17+ | 155 | [80,82] |
Gogama, ON | 1941 | 14 May | 15 June | 133,827 | [82] | ||
Mississagi, ON | 1948 | 1 May | 31 October | 261,017 | [82] | ||
Chinchaga River Fire (Wisp fire), BC and AB | 1950 | Major run 20 September | October | 1,400,000 | [87] | ||
Lesser Slave Lake Fire, AB | 1968 | Major run 23 May | 133,550 | [98] | |||
Vega fire, AB | 1968 | 23 May | [90] | ||||
Inuvik Fire, NWT | 1968 | 8 August | 18 August | 35,000 | [89] | ||
Cold Lake Fire (DND-3-80), AB and SK | 1980 | 1 May | [98] | ||||
Cold Lake Fire (DND-4-80) AB and SK | 1980 | 2 May | 177,813 | [98] | |||
Hay River Fire (HY-36-81), NWT | 1981 | 3 July | 1009 | [91] | |||
Red Lake Fire, ON | 1980 | 1 June | 43,664 | 5000 | [82] | ||
Fire Northeast of Vancouver, BC | 1985 | 1 July | 240,000+ | [82] | |||
Northern Manitoba fires | 1989 | 11 May | 20 September | 3,280,000 | 25,000 | [82,84] | |
Betsiamites, Ragueneau and Baie-Comeau Fire, QC | 1991 | 29 June | 29 June | 7000 | [82] | ||
North Central Saskatchewan fires | 1995 | 29 May | 29 May | 160,000 | 3338 | [82] | |
Swan Hills Fire, AB | 1998 | 5 May | 21 May | 155,000 | 2030 | [82] | |
Tibbet Lake Fire, NWT | 1998 | 22 July | 31 July | 140,000 | 5 | [82] | |
British Columbia fires | 1998 | 1 August | 31 August? | 42,115 | 10,600 | [82] | |
Salmon Arm Fire, BC | 1998 | 10 August | 17 August | 6300 | 7000 | [82] | |
Chisholm fire (LWF-063), AB | 2001 | 23 May | 29 May | 36,690 | [90] | ||
House River Fire, AB | 2002 | 17 May | 7 June | 248,000/ 248,243 | 1550 | [82,92] | |
Manitoba fires | 2003 | 1 April | 31 October | 918,845 | 665 | [82,85] | |
Southeastern BC and Southwestern AB fires | 2003 | 1 July | 31 August | 48,501 | [82] | ||
Okanagan Mountain Park Fire, BC | 2003 | 16 August | 12 September | 25,000/ 25,600 | 27,000/ 33,050 | [94]/ [86] | |
McLure Fire, BC | 2003 | 30 July | October | 26,420/ 26,000 | 3800 | [86]/ [93] | |
Mistissini Fire, QC | 2006 | 16 June | 18 June | 3200 | [82] | ||
Tumbler Ridge Fire, BC | 2006 | 3 July | 5 July | 9100 | 4000 | [82] | |
South Indian Lake Fire, MB | 2007 | 19 July | 26 July | 147,473 | 963 | [82] | |
Norway House and Sherridon Fire, MB | 2008 | 28 May | 28 May | 3330 | [82] | ||
Halifax Fire, NS | 2008 | 13 June | 13 June | 5000 | [82] | ||
Northern Saskatchewan fires | 2008 | 30 June | 30 June | 2500 | [82] | ||
Kelowna, Kamloops and Cariboo Fire, BC | 2009 | 1 May | 31 August | 1 | 20,000 | [82] | |
West Kelowna wildfires, BC | 2009 | 18 July | 31 August | [82] | |||
British Columbia fires | 2010 | 28 July | 8 September | 330,000 | 2 | 1383 | [82] |
British Columbia fires | 2010 | 18 August (2nd major run) | Early September | [86] | |||
Richardson Backcountry Fire, AB | 2011 | 15 May | September | 148,000+ | [95] | ||
Slave Lake Wildfire, AB | 2011 | 14 May | 22 May | 4900 | 1 | 12,055 | [82] |
Northern Ontario fires | 2011 | 6 July | 25 July | 300,000 | 3300+ | [82] | |
Mackenzie County Fire, AB | 2012 | 11 July | 20 July | 100,000 | 300 | [82,99] | |
Lethbridge and Coalhurst Fire, AB | 2012 | 10 September | 11 September | 3000 | [82] | ||
Northwest Territories fires | 2014 | 1 July | 18 September | 3,500,000+ | 60 | [82] | |
British Columbia fires | 2014 | 1 July | 30 September | 360,000 | 4500 | [82] | |
British Columbia fires | 2015 | 9 May | 11 September | 300,000 | 1 | 3432 | [82] |
Northern Saskatchewan fires | 2015 | 1 July | 18 July | 1,800,000 | 13,000 | [82] | |
Peace Region fires, BC | 2016 | 18 April | Fall | [86] | |||
Wood Buffalo (Fort McMurray) Wildfire, AB and SK | 2016 | 1 May/30 April | Mid June/ 1 June | 589,000/ 593,670 | 2 | 88,000/96,000 | [100]/[82] |
Easterville and Chemawawin Fire, MB | 2016 | 23 June | 27 June | 2070 | [82] | ||
British Columbia fires | 2017 | 7 July | 15 September | 1,200,000+ | 65,000 | [86] | |
Verdant Creek Fire, BC | 2017 | 15 July | October | 18,017 | [97] | ||
Kenow Fire, AB | 2017 | 30 August | 38,000 | [96] |
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Recording ID | Preheating Start Timestamp (h:min:s or s) | Preheating/Ignition Delay Time (s) | Flame-Front Residence Time (s) | Flame-Front Exposure Time (s) | Source |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Plot 3 Part II | 03:10:40 | 19 | 53 | 72 | [62] (video) |
Video 3 | 04:32:47 | 23 | 35 | 58 | [63] (video) |
Video 4 | 04:32:58 | 18 | 29 | 47 | [63] (video) |
Video 5 | 04:32:53 | 21 | 29 | 50 | [63] (video) |
Video 6 | 04:32:51 | 13 | 38 | 51 | [63] (video) |
Video 7 | 04:32:36 | 24 | 38 | 62 | [63] (video) |
Sensor height 13.8 m | 530 | 35 | 30 | 65 | [56] |
Sensor height 12.3 m | 520 | 50 | 25 | 75 | [56] |
Sensor height 9.2 m | 535 | 35 | 20 | 55 | [56] |
Sensor height 6.2 m | 540 | 35 | 30 | 65 | [56] |
Sensor height 3.1 m | 535 | 50 | 25 | 75 | [56] |
Average | 29 | 32 | 61 |
Plant Tissue Type | Minimum | Maximum | Range | Mean (Standard Deviation) | Sample Size | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
EC | ∂Heff | EC | ∂Heff | EC | ∂Heff | EC | ∂Heff | ||
Tree branch (mixed shoot) | 8.64 | −0.24 | 11.93 | 10.63 | 3.29 | 10.87 | 10.27 (0.81) | 4.39 (1.79) | 47 |
New shoots | 4.46 | −6.33 | 10.88 | 6.48 | 6.42 | 12.81 | 7.55 (2.07) | 0.23 (3.68) | 42 |
1 year shoots | 9.27 | 1.98 | 11.51 | 7.10 | 2.24 | 5.12 | 10.37 (0.52) | 4.75 (1.19) | 48 |
2+ year shoots | 9.54 | 2.61 | 12.06 | 6.49 | 2.52 | 3.88 | 10.92 (0.57) | 4.76 (0.86) | 48 |
All ages of shoots combined | 4.46 | −6.33 | 12.06 | 7.10 | 7.60 | 13.43 | 9.70 (1.89) | 3.38 (3.03) | 138 |
Predictor | R2 for Flammability (Predictand) as Fresh Mass Basis ∂Heff, New Approach | R2 for Flammability (Predictand) as Mass Loss Basis ∂Heff, Old Approach |
---|---|---|
Shoot water content, fresh mass basis (SWCfm) | 0.82 | 0.80 |
Shoot water content dry mass basis (SWCdm) as analog of FMC, but for shoots instead of just foliage | 0.79 | 0.78 |
Shoot dry matter content, fresh mass basis (DM) | 0.81 | 0.80 |
Shoot fresh mass basis energy content, (EC) | 0.80 | 0.77 |
Shoot gross heat of combustion dry mass basis (Hgross), or calorific content | −0.005 | −0.002 |
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Melnik, O.M.; Paskaluk, S.A.; Ackerman, M.Y.; Melnik, K.O.; Thompson, D.K.; McAllister, S.S.; Flannigan, M.D. New In-Flame Flammability Testing Method Applied to Monitor Seasonal Changes in Live Fuel. Fire 2022, 5, 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5010001
Melnik OM, Paskaluk SA, Ackerman MY, Melnik KO, Thompson DK, McAllister SS, Flannigan MD. New In-Flame Flammability Testing Method Applied to Monitor Seasonal Changes in Live Fuel. Fire. 2022; 5(1):1. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5010001
Chicago/Turabian StyleMelnik, Oleg M., Stephen A. Paskaluk, Mark Y. Ackerman, Katharine O. Melnik, Dan K. Thompson, Sara S. McAllister, and Mike D. Flannigan. 2022. "New In-Flame Flammability Testing Method Applied to Monitor Seasonal Changes in Live Fuel" Fire 5, no. 1: 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5010001
APA StyleMelnik, O. M., Paskaluk, S. A., Ackerman, M. Y., Melnik, K. O., Thompson, D. K., McAllister, S. S., & Flannigan, M. D. (2022). New In-Flame Flammability Testing Method Applied to Monitor Seasonal Changes in Live Fuel. Fire, 5(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire5010001