1. Introduction
Volunteer fire departments across the United States are challenged with recruiting and retaining members to effectively protect communities in which they are tasked to serve [
1]. The volunteer fire service is responsible for protecting the majority of the geographic U.S. with 65% of all firefighters being volunteer. These departments engage in activities that include structural firefighting, vehicle extrication of victims in automobile accidents, suppressing brush fires, and emergency medical calls. During response activities members might engage with other public service organizations, to include other fire departments, police departments, and ambulance services.
There are currently 745,000 volunteer firefighters, with the most current year’s data, 2018, showing the first year of an increase in volunteerism in recent years. Recruitment and retention of volunteer fire department members is particularly problematic among rural communities [
2,
3]. The average age of volunteer firefighters has been on the rise due to the lack of being able to recruit and retain new and younger volunteers [
4,
5].
Residents of the Appalachian Region are particularly vulnerable to the crisis of recruiting and retaining volunteer firefighters. The economic impact of the exodus of the coal industry has resulted in residents moving out of the area to find gainful employment. Braxton County, West Virginia is specifically designated as a distressed area by the Appalachian Regional Commission [
6].
Volunteer fire departments are self-organized in compliance with state regulations. Training is based on state standards and applies to various levels of responsibility and rank within a department. Funding to sustain operations is typically comprised of a combination of governmental funding and independent fundraising activities.
The volunteer fire service has traditionally been male-dominated. Women only account for approximately 11% of all volunteer firefighters in the U.S. [
7]. One barrier to women becoming engaged in the fire service is the need to overcome a culture of masculinity [
8]. They must navigate a predominantly masculine culture and determine how they can successfully integrate into the organization. The overtly masculine culture is evidenced in news media in situations such as coverage of the events of 9/11 when the male stereotype eclipsed the contributions of women in the fire service [
9].
Male-dominated cultures can negatively evolve to the point where women are specifically not welcome in the department [
10,
11]. An unwelcoming environment creates a barrier for women to consider engaging in the volunteer fire service. They would have to knowingly enter a hostile environment that could result in disparagement and harassment [
12].
Physical capabilities of women can be a barrier, whether real or perceived [
13]. Women might be perceived as weaker than their male counterparts, thus making them inferior as a firefighter candidate. Firefighting and other emergency response activities are physically rigorous and women must overcome the stereotype that they are naturally incapable of accomplishing required physical tasks.
Due to most volunteer fire departments existing in rural areas, another barrier for women to engage in the volunteer service is existing multiple responsibilities that require time investment [
14]. Becoming a volunteer firefighter requires a great investment of time in activities such as training, emergency response, attending departmental meetings, and work to maintain the physical property of the fire station.
Despite national statistics and known gender barriers, the Frametown Volunteer Fire Department in Braxton County, West Virginia is a unique case in that 60% of its membership is female. An investigation of this department can help to identify factors that could assist in the recruitment and retention of women into the volunteer fire service.
One research question guided the investigation of the Frametown Volunteer Fire Department. That question was:
What factors have led to such a high level of female engagement in the Frametown Volunteer Fire Department?
4. Discussion
Freire discussed power dynamics in the context of oppression. He presented a detailed analysis and applicability of issues associated with oppressors (those who hold power) and the oppressed (those who are subject to power) [
17]. Though Freire’s work was focused on the poor in Brazil, similar dynamics of female oppression in the fire service have existed for decades. Chetkovich said:
…autonomous choice is possible under circumstances of oppression when it reflects a balanced understanding: one that avoids both the distortion of the oppressor’s view and the constraints of the victim’s response.”.
The Frametown Volunteer Fire Department once operated under a system of oppression where women were not valued as equal and were not wanted. The volume of women continued to grow causing a rift in the department that was the impetus for its current culture of gender inclusiveness with a “balanced understanding” rather than oppression.
The Frametown Volunteer Fire Department appears to be a microcosm of much of what the United States is striving to achieve related to one aspect of the gender dialogue; that being the ability to create an environment where gender inclusiveness is achieved with a focus on individual development and performance rather than biological labels. In the early phase of interviewing participants, it was interesting to note the lack of response when questions were asked regarding gender. The realization soon surfaced that this was a minor finding in and of itself. It was not that participants were hesitant to speak to issues of gender within their fire department, but that gender issues are unimportant.
In a period of declining volunteerism, the story of Frametown offers an opportunity to gain insight into how women have become an integral part of fire department operations. Frametown has not been immune to the problem of declining volunteerism. A male firefighter said:
We do not have a lot of new people coming and stepping up. New volunteers are rare.
However, Frametown has become a model that can be used as a potential point of learning and organizational development for many volunteer fire departments. Achieving a high level of success related to gender inclusiveness involved men who were willing to consider desire and ability as a sole measurements for performance and women who simply desired to do more. If one were to erase gender from the equation, the social and operational environment in the Frametown Volunteer Fire Department would be what anyone could hope for with respect to the concept of inclusion: those who desire to do more and those who welcome their effort into the fold and support them without reservation.
In an effort to stem the decline in the volunteer fire service, departments could examine the success of Frametown and engage women who have highly needed skills and can be recruited into the volunteer fire service. One element that can be applied is Frametown’s success in growing their department and developing their organizational culture organically rather than through structured recruitment activities or initiatives. Members have utilized familial and friendship contacts to share their excitement for the volunteer fire service, which has resulted in an extended familial culture in the department.
Frametown’s primarily organic growth through individually recruiting family members and friends in the community stands in contrast to recruitment initiatives that are promoted to recruit volunteers. In addressing the status quo of membership development, Maltbie states:
The process of bringing members into a first-aid squad or a fire department is typically simple and reactive—an individual decides to join. Then, the organization makes contact, conducts an interview, performs a background check, and decides to admit.
He then addresses flawed assumptions in the recruiting process, which are “people know what we do”, “people know how to help”, and “people know they have time to volunteer”. These assumptions are followed by communications that should occur within the construct of a designed recruitment plan. Chapman discusses the use of “public education and open houses” as tools to recruit volunteer firefighters [
20]. Pillsworth encourages fire departments to absorb the cost of paid time off for required firefighter training so members will not have to utilize personal vacation time to attend training sessions [
21]. The State of Pennsylvania is in a period of crisis due to the low volume of volunteer fire firefighters, resulting in the state issuing a report encouraging the use of incentives to recruit volunteers [
22]. However, none of these intricate and costly recommendations are consistent with the membership at Frametown where members simply utilize existing relationships to recruit new members into the department. These findings are consistent with prior, similar studies demonstrating the effectiveness of organic, contact-based growth [
10,
23].
Identifying individuals with a sense of community is a second element that could be addressed. Women who join Frametown tend to do so because it provides an avenue through which they can serve their community. Due to the rural environment in which Frametown exists, a unique dynamic is that a high likelihood exists of a member of the department knowing a victim to whom they are responding as a friend, family member, or acquaintance. One female firefighter said:
We [female members] are not out to change the world, we just want to better our community.
Another female firefighter said:
I think we are all here for the same reasons. To save lives and help people and we know each other and we know most of the people in the community and we have a strong love for each other.
Five female firefighters specifically referenced the fact that they had grown up in the area, in addition to five male firefighters also stating they had grown up in Braxton County. One of these women said:
I love my county.
Such a statement indicates the degree to which she was committed to the geographic area.
This dynamic was present in the study of rural firefighting communities in Australia in that women are motivated to join due to:
…community-based motives, including the desire to protect personal assets, those of family and friends….
Similarly, Ainsworth, Batty, and Burchielli found women in Australia joined to protect:
…real people with a name on the gate…a trampoline and a little kid’s slide.
Greene and Hendershot identified in a study of South Carolina volunteer firefighters that values, enhancement, and understanding were areas that promoted recruitment and retention [
3]. The concept of “values” addressed the desire of one to be concerned with the wellbeing of others.
Perrott and Blenkarn found that women tend to join the volunteer fire service for altruistic reasons. They usually have a deep concern for those they will serve and that motivation tends to be a primary factor in the paradigm through which they view their work in the volunteer fire service [
24].
Cultural development within the fire department is a third element for volunteer fire departments to consider. Rather than pandering to the stereotypical masculine “brotherhood”, volunteer fire departments can assess their culture and determine the degree to which gender-inclusive familial attributes exist.
Stereotypically, the fire service is known for its bond among firefighters. The environment that exists in Frametown is unique in relation to findings in other studies. The events of 9/11 resurrected the masculine image of the firefighter along with the term “brotherhood” causing women in emergency services to become invisible in the media. Brenda Berkman became a prominent figure in fighting for female inclusion in the Fire Department of New York (FDNY). She played a pivotal role by filing a law suit against the FDNY to adjust its physical test requirements that excluded women from being able to pass. As a responder during 9/11, she observed the presence and impact of numerous female first responders, though the media image regressed to the masculine stereotype of FDNY firefighters and the associated “brotherhood” [
25].
Dowler identified a similar dynamic:
Although there were female heroes at Ground Zero, as mentioned earlier by the acceptable heroine of this conflict seems to be the white, heterosexual, Christian mothers who have been left without husbands.
Media coverage, stereotypes that were fostered, and national perception allowed female emergency responders during 9/11 to fade into the background.
Woodfield found women struggled to achieve recognition in the masculine culture of the fire service:
Participants further identified the existence of a female prototype, counterposed to the male firefighter prototype, against which they were ‘struggling, mostly in silence’.
Such a picture stands in stark contrast to the family environment created in Frametown where women are accepted and encouraged to grow in skill and engagement in the department.
Chetkovich found that the events of 9/11 “lionized” the masculine stereotype of firefighters. She found that such behavior reverted to masculine terms surfacing, such as “firemen” rather than the gender-neutral term “firefighter”. Similarly, in relation to Frametown, women are exposed to terminology such as the “West Virginia Firemen’s Association” and the “Firemen’s Prayer” (which is posted in two areas within the fire station). Yet, when specifically asked about these clearly masculine terms, women tended to not be concerned about the gender focus of the words and considered themselves as being included. Chetkovich states:
Collective action through public policy and organized practice must promote women’s agency in part by transforming communities (including organizations) in a way that makes them more inclusive.
Women at Frametown indicate they are unconcerned about masculine terminology and are included in organizational operations of the department. The Chief, President, and Secretary are all female in addition to approximately 60% of its overall membership being female.
Volunteer fire departments can establish an environment that fosters the ability for members to demonstrate compassion as a fourth element that can contribute to membership growth. Though women showing compassion can be considered a gender stereotype, it is not a harmful one as evident at Frametown in addition to being manifested among female firefighters in Australia [
8].
An outgrowth in the interviews associated with the emotional ability to demonstrate compassion was that such responses were not terminated once the situation at an emergency response scene was resolved. Women reported allowing themselves to experience physical emotional responses following an incident, such as shedding tears, whereas men tended to report internalizing such emotions. Women saw their ability to demonstrate emotions as a benefit in that they could process issues at the time of the event and reach a point of mental and emotional resolution.
Ainsworth, Batty, and Burchielli identified a similar finding in their study under the label of “preferred femininity” that included the “ethics of care” [
8]. Women recognized their ability to provide compassion and care for victims as something unique in comparison to their male counterparts:
Women are much better when say you get to a house fire and there is a woman or children all upset…We are just able to offer support…A man would have no idea let alone even think about doing that.
A male Frametown officer referred to women as simply being better than men when interacting with female and child victims on scenes. Though such characterization could be interpreted as gender-specific, men were not discounted in their ability to demonstrate compassion and the ability for women to do so at a greater level was expressed as a strength.
Creating a gender-inclusive environment is the final element volunteer fire departments could address. Rather than relying on the male stereotype of the firefighter, volunteer departments can create an environment that solely considers desire and ability rather than gender. Females bring greatly needed skill sets to emergency response operations and can navigate required training, similar to their male counterparts.
Eriksen investigated gender issues in rural firefighting in Australia, a geographic environment similar to that of Frametown. Her focus was on identifying elements of gender-balanced and gender-sensitive environments. She found:
The benefits of hands-on experience and practice, the strength of networks and the imperative of learning environments” to foster an environment that productively incorporates both males and females.
The finding of “supportive learning environments” echo the words of Frametown participants where women are seen as “fellow firefighters” and have to navigate the same training as men.
Beatson and McLennan explored the value of engaging women in correcting the decline in Australia’s volunteer fire service. They identified challenges in recruitment (public perception, competing commitments, and recruitment practices), retention (perceived competence and sexual harassment) and the physical environment (adequate protective gear and fire department facilities) [
11]. Of these three primary areas of challenge, Frametown appears to only share the challenges of recruitment, as do many volunteer fire departments across the country that struggle to increase membership. However, challenges of retention and facilities did not appear in participant interviews. Beatson and McLennan made a prophetic statement in their research that Frametown has experienced:
A predominantly male and aging volunteer membership is likely to lead to reduced volunteer fire fighter numbers in the future. Research aimed at enhancing the recruitment and retention of women volunteers is thus essential.
In the words of one long term female member:
We are not out to change the world. We just want to make an impact on our community.
These women have accomplished that which a great deal of the mainstream has aspired to in relation to gender inclusiveness. Incremental change over a period of years has assisted this fire department to reach a pinnacle level of gender inclusiveness, one in which gender does not appear to be a consideration in fire department member recruitment and performance. This was evidenced at the close of an interview with a longtime male member of the department. After completing the interview, in conversation with the participant, a videographer recording all of the interviews made the comment:
We are in the age of women empowerment.
The male firefighter, slightly laughing, said:
No we are not. You should have been in it 20 years ago.
He was making reference to the catalyst in the mid 1990’s that resulted in Frametown’s current level of gender inclusiveness today. The empowerment of women occurred at Frametown in the mid 1990’s and is of little concern today due to their current level of gender inclusiveness.
Gender appears to play little role in fire department membership and operations at Frametown. Interviews among both men and women supported the paradigm of forgetting one’s biological differences in favor of accomplishing the goals of the organization as a whole. Rather than considering a gender gap, the Frametown Volunteer Fire Department is an example of gender synergy. Men and women work alongside each other in incredibly stressful environments and depend on what each member can bring to the operational scene to most successfully accomplish emergency response operations as well as day-to-day activities that must be carried out in order for the department to function.
All women in the department felt they were contributing their abilities to the success of the department, absent of any concerns of gender stereotype, whether such abilities complied with gender stereotypes (in the case of female support members cooking to support fund raising to address 41% of the department’s annual operating budget) or in emergency response scene operations. Gender differences, though stereotypical, are simply seen as being acceptable. In the case of Frametown, the issue goes beyond gender as the members of the department simply assess ability and desire to contribute to the success of the organization, rather than conform to stereotypes based on gender. Such a paradigm could be what has helped the department to arrive at an organizational culture to which much of our society aspires—a world in which absolute desire and ability supersedes compliance or non-compliance with gender stereotypes.