Firefighter Observations of “Surprising” Fire Behavior in Mountain Pine Beetle-Attacked Lodgepole Pine Forests
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- How did your expectations of fire behavior in post-outbreak MPB lodgepole pine forests compare to actual direct observations in the field?
- What surprised you about the observed fire behavior and why?
- Did your suppression tactics change after directly observing fire behavior in post-outbreak lodgepole pine forests and if so how?
2. Conceptualizing “Surprise” in the Context of Wildland Fire
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Wildfire Case Selection
3.2. Interview Sample and Protocol
3.3. Coding
4. Results
4.1. Observations of Surprising Fire Behavior
“The transition from the surface fire to group torching or single tree torching initiated really fast. Considering the environmental conditions that we had, 32% relative humidity [RH] and temps of 50 °F [10 °C]. Normally if there were conditions of 15% RH with 70 °F [21 °C], I could see that initiation like it did and faster than what it did. But to be able to burn under those conditions and not lose your fire per se, I think that’s what’s significant about what this points out, how flammable it is, at such a low intensity, moderate weather condition.”
“[This] just reinforced what I’ve been seeing with these fires as far as all the spotting and the spotting getting out in front. Having to chase all that stuff, from the little quarter sized stuff to the helmet size stuff, and having to manage all that in addition to the main fire—yeah, I think we will see more of that. I think that’s just more of that material available in the convection column of the fire.”
“We knew that if it got in the red needles that it would obviously torch out and spread. But I guess I was surprised how fast it happened, the initiation. It was almost instantaneous.”
“There wasn’t much down on the ground in the red needle stands. The conception I had after all the beetle stuff came out, is how is it going to get into the crowns? Red-needle trees are going to burn pretty well. But it has to get to the crowns first. The regeneration maybe? The fire did have some ladder fuels to get up into the crowns, but that was still a ways away from the initial push, about 100 acres [40 hectares] away. Once the heat started going, the red needles, even the boles of the trees, were burning. It didn’t need ladder fuels for ground-to-crown transition.”
“Well, what we have been told was to expect a really active crown fire. But when I tried to locate where the fire edge was, at least where the crown fire edge was, I was trying to figure out why it didn’t advance to places I expected. I concluded pretty fast that it still needed slope and a continuous run of fuel. It wasn’t like a grass fuel model that would spread in every direction in canopies; it still needed an alignment with winds and slopes.”
“On the three fires we’re talking about, there’s a good mix between red and gray, maybe a little heavier on gray. The gray phase didn’t seem to really make a difference to go to a crown fire than the red. Both phases seem to have an ability to have crown runs for short amounts of time.”
“Even though there was minimal residence time [the time duration in which flames burn in one place before spreading to other unburned fuels] around the base of the dead lodgepole, trees were easily ignited. We were watching embers get lifted, lofted into crotches of trees. Within thirty minutes of visible flame, the tree was falling in half. We later felled and surveyed the tree, and it was pretty well dried and rotten in on the inside, but the outside of the tree was still fairly solid.”
“On the Sylvan Fire, it was jack-straw like you would not believe. And that jack straw stuff, you can get starts in the grasses that might’ve been there with the original stand. You get that grass cured and all those dead trees all over the place, and the wind pushing through that—it was a pretty intense fire. Not a crown fire, but still surprisingly hot.”
4.2. Change in Operational Fire Practices Based on the Surprises in Fire Behavior Experienced
5. Discussion
“For what is experienced judgment except opinion based on knowledge acquired by experience? If you have fought forest fires in every different fuel type, under all possible kinds of weather, and if you have remembered exactly what happened in each of these combinations, your experienced judgment is probably very good. But if you have not fought all sizes of fires in all kinds of fuel types under all kinds of weather then your experience does not include knowledge of all the conditions.”
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Meddens, A.J.H.; Hicke, J.A.; Ferguson, C.A. Spatiotemporal patterns of observed bark beetle-caused tree mortality in British Columbia and the western United States. Ecol. Appl. 2012, 22, 1876–1891. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- WFLC. Western Bark Beetle Assessment: A Framework for Cooperative Forest Stewardship; Western Forestry Leadership Coalition: Denver, CO, USA, 2009. [Google Scholar]
- USDA Forest Service. Western Bark Beetle Strategy: Human Safety, Recovery, and Resiliency; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: Washington, DC, USA, 2011.
- Jenkins, M.J.; Hebertson, E.; Page, W.G.; Jorgensen, C.A. Bark beetles, fuels, fires, and implications for forest management in the Intermountain West. For. Ecol. Manag. 2008, 254, 16–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Simard, M.; Romme, W.H.; Griffin, J.M.; Turner, M.G. Do mountain pine beetle outbreaks change the probability of active crown fire in lodgepole pine forests? Ecol. Monogr. 2011, 81, 3–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jenkins, M.J.; Page, W.G.; Hebertson, E.G.; Alexander, M.E. Fuels and fire behavior dynamics in bark beetle-attacked forests in Western North America and implications for fire management. For. Ecol. Manag. 2012, 275, 23–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hicke, J.A.; Johnson, M.C.; Hayes, J.L.; Preisler, K. Effects of bark-beetle caused tree mortality on wildfire. For. Ecol. Manag. 2012, 271, 81–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hoffman, C.; Morgan, P.; Mell, W.; Parsons, R.; Strand, E.K.; Cook, S. Numerical simulation of crown fire hazard immediately after bark beetle-caused mortality in lodgepole pine forests. For. Sci. 2012, 58, 178–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hoffman, C.M.; Morgan, P.; Mell, W.; Parsons, R.; Strand, E.; Cook, S. Surface fire intensity influences simulated crown fire behavior in lodgepole pine forests with recent mountain pine beetle-caused tree mortality. For. Sci. 2013, 59, 390–399. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Page, W.G.; Jenkins, M.J.; Runyon, J.B. Mountain pine beetle attack alters the chemistry and flammability of lodgepole pine foliage. Can. J. For. Res. 2012, 42, 1631–1647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Linn, R.R.; Sieg, C.H.; Hoffman, C.M.; Winterkamp, J.L.; McMillin, J.D. Modeling wind fields and fire propagation following bark beetle outbreaks in spatially-heterogeneous pinyon-juniper woodland fuel complexes. Agric. For. Meteorol. 2013, 173, 139–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hoffman, C.M.; Linn, R.; Parsons, R.; Sieg, C.; White, J. Modeling the effect of spatial and temporal dynamics following a mountain pine beetle outbreak on wind flow and potential fire behavior in a lodgepole pine forest. Agric. For. Meteorol. 2015, 204, 79–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sieg, C.H.; Linn, R.R.; Pimont, F.; Hoffman, C.M.; McMillin, J.D.; Winterkamp, J.; Baggett, L.S. Fires following bark beetles: Factors controlling severity and disturbance interactions in ponderosa pine. Fire Ecol. 2017, 13, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hart, S.J.; Schoennagel, T.; Veblen, T.T.; Chapman, T.B. Area burned in the western United States is unaffected by recent mountain pine beetle outbreaks. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2015, 112, 4375–4380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Page, W.G.; Alexander, M.E.; Jenkins, M.J. Wildfire’s resistance to control in mountain pine beetle-attacked lodgepole pine forests. For. Chron. 2013, 89, 783–794. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Calkin, D.E.; Venn, T.; Wibbenmeyer, M.; Thompson, M.P. Estimating US federal wildland fire managers’ preferences towards competing strategic suppression objectives. Int. J. Wildland Fire 2013, 22, 212–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Byron, E. Firefighters Warn New Fires May Burn in Mysterious Ways. Helena Independent Record: Helena, MT, USA. Available online: http://helenair.com/news/firefighters-warn-new-fires-burn-in-mysterious-ways/article_f9e71da0-76df-11e0-9ec6-001cc4c002e0.html (accessed on 16 December 2015).
- Weick, K.E. The collapse of sensemaking in organizations: The Mann Gulch disaster. Adm. Sci. Q. 1993, 38, 628–652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Durbin, T.J.; Bendixsen, C.G.; Jensen-Ryan, D.; Molzer, A.; Strauss, S. The dangerous middle: Situational awareness and worker perception of beetle kill. J. Agromed. 2019, 24, 157–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Louis, M.R. Surprise and sensemaking: What newcomers experience in entering unfamiliar organizational settings. Adm. Sci. Q. 1980, 25, 226–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Klein, G.; Phillips, J.K.; Rall, E.L.; Peluso, D.A. A data-frame theory of sensemaking. In Expertise Out of Context, Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Naturalistic Decision Making, Pensacola Beach, FL, USA, 15–17 May 2003; Hoffman, R.R., Ed.; Taylor and Francis: New York, NY, USA, 2007; pp. 113–155. [Google Scholar]
- Desmond, M. On the Fireline: Living and Dying with Wildland Firefighters; The University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL, USA, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Kodas, M. Megafire: The Race to Extinguish a Deadly Epidemic of Flame; Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing: New York, NY, USA, 2017. [Google Scholar]
- Wall, T.; Brown, T.; Nauslar, N. Fire Stories—Understanding Wildland Firefighters’ Perceptions of Unpredictable and Extreme Fire Behavior; Desert Research Institute: Reno, NV, USA, 2018; p. 27. [Google Scholar]
- Weick, K.E.; Sutcliffe, K.M.; Obstfeld, D. Organizing for high reliability: Processes of collective mindfulness. In Research in Organizational Behavior; Sutton, R.S., Straw, B.M., Eds.; Jai Press: Stanford, CT, USA, 1999; pp. 81–123. [Google Scholar]
- Black, A.E.; McBride, B.B. Assessing High Reliability Practices in Wildland Fire Management: An Exploration and Benchmarking of Organizational Culture; Research Note RMRS-RN-55; US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: Fort Collins, CO, USA, 2013.
- Alexander, M.E.; Thomas, D.A. Wildland fire behavior case studies and analyses: Value, approaches, and practical uses. Fire Manag. Today 2003, 63, 4–8. [Google Scholar]
- Thomas, D.A. A case for fire behavior case studies. Wildfire 1994, 3, 45–47. [Google Scholar]
- Alexander, M.E.; Thomas, D.A. Wildland fire behavior case studies and analyses: Other examples, methods, reporting standards, and some practical advice. Fire Manag. Today 2003, 63, 4–12. [Google Scholar]
- Alexander, M.E.; Taylor, S.W. Wildland fire behavior case studies and the 1938 Honey Fire controversy. Fire Manag. Today 2010, 70, 15–25. [Google Scholar]
- Weick, K.; Sutcliffe, K.K.; Obstfeld, D. Organizing and the process of sensemaking. Organ. Sci. 2005, 16, 409–421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klein, G.; Calderwood, R.; Clinton-Cirocco, A. Rapid decision making on the fire ground: The original study plus a postscript. J. Cogn. Eng. Decis. Mak. 2010, 4, 186–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Landgren, J. Supporting fire crew sensemaking enroute to incidents. Int. J. Emerg. Manag. 2005, 2, 176–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohn, J.P.; Carroll, M.S.; Kumagai, Y. Evacuation behavior during wildfires: Results of three case studies. West. J. Appl. For. 2006, 21, 39–48. [Google Scholar]
- Moriarty, K. Firefighter Observations on Mountain Pine Beetle Post-Outbreak Lodgepole Pine Fires: Expectations, Surprises, and Decision-Making. Master’s Thesis, Department of Forest and Rangeland Stewardship, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Scott, J.; Carrington, P.J. (Eds.) The SAGE Handbook of Social Network Analysis; Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
- Strauss, A.; Corbin, J. Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques, 3rd ed.; Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar]
- Hutchinson, A.J.; Johnston, L.H.; Breckon, J.D. Using QSR-NVivo to facilitate the development of a grounded theory project: An account of a worked example. Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol. 2010, 13, 283–302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boeije, H. A purposeful approach to the constant comparative method in the analysis of qualitative interviews. Qual. Quant. 2002, 36, 391–409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gleason, P. LCES—A key to safety in the wildland fire environment. Fire Manag. Notes 1991, 52, 9. [Google Scholar]
- Leuschen, T.; Frederick, K. The consumption strategy: Increasing safety during mopup. Fire Manag. Notes 1999, 59, 30–34. [Google Scholar]
- NWCG. Design and Delivery of Tactical Decision Games Sand Table Exercises: Leadership Toolbox Reference TDGS/STEX Workbook; National Wildfire Coordinating Group: Washington, DC, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Tourangeau, R. Remembering what happened: Memory errors and survey reports. In The Science of Self-Report: Implications for Research and Practice; Stone, A.A., Bacharach, C.A., Jobe, J.B., Kurtzman, H.S., Cain, V.S., Eds.; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.: Mahwah, NJ, USA, 1999; pp. 29–48. [Google Scholar]
- Yow, V.R. Recording Oral History: A Guide for the Humanities and Social Sciences; Altamira Press: Walnut Creek, CA, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Lieberman, H.R.; Bathalon, G.P.; Falco, C.M.; Morgan, C.A.; Niro, P.J.; Tharion, W.J. The fog of war: Decrements in cognitive performance and mood associated with combat-like stress. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 2005, 76, 7–14. [Google Scholar]
- Jeong, H.S.; Brower, R.S. Extending the present understanding of organizational sensemaking: Three stages and three contexts. Adm. Soc. 2008, 40, 223–252. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brower, R.S.; Choi, S.O.; Jeong, H.S.; Dilling, J. Forms of inter-organizational learning in emergency management networks. J. Homel. Secur. Emerg. Manag. 2009, 6, 1547–7355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Burrows, N.D. Predicting Blow-Up Fires in the Jarrah Forest; Technical Paper 12; Western Australia Forests Department: Perth, WA, Australia, 1984; p. 27.
- Gisborne, H.T. Fundamentals of fire behavior. Fire Control Notes 1948, 9, 13–24. [Google Scholar]
- Scott, C.W.; Trethewey, A. Organizational discourse and the appraisal of occupational hazards: Interpretive repertoires, heedful interrelating, and identity at work. J. Appl. Commun. Res. 2008, 36, 298–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thomas, D.; Fox, R.; Miller, C. Voices from the field: Wildland fire managers and high-reliability organizing mindfulness. Soc. Nat. Resour. 2015, 28, 825–838. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jahn, J.L.S. Adapting safety rules in a high reliability context: How wildland firefighting workgroups ventriloquize safety rules to understand hazards. Manag. Commun. Q. 2016, 30, 362–389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weick, K.E. Enacted sensemaking in crisis situations. J. Manag. Stud. 1988, 25, 305–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stephens, S.L.; Burrows, N.; Buyantuyev, A.; Gray, R.W.; Keane, R.E.; Kubian, R.; Liu, S.; Seijo, F.; Shu, L.; Tolhurst, K.G.; et al. Temperate and boreal forest mega-fires: Characteristics and challenges. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2014, 12, 115–122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tedim, F.; Leone, V.; Amraoui, M.; Bouillon, C.; Coughlan, M.R.; Delogu, G.M.; Fernandes, P.M.; Ferreira, C.; McCaffrey, S.; McGee, T.K.; et al. Defining extreme wildfire events: Difficulties, challenges, and impacts. Fire 2018, 1, 9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klutsch, J.G.; Battaglia, M.A.; West, D.R.; Costello, S.L.; Negron, J.F. Evaluating potential fire behavior in lodgepole pine-dominated forests after a mountain pine beetle epidemic in north-central Colorado. West. J. Appl. For. 2011, 26, 101–109. [Google Scholar]
- Kulakowski, D.; Jarvis, D. The influence of mountain pine beetle outbreaks and drought on severe wildfires in northwestern Colorado and southern Wyoming: A look at the past century. For. Ecol. Manag. 2011, 262, 1686–1696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stephens, S.L.; Collins, B.M.; Fettig, C.J.; Finney, M.A.; Hoffman, C.M.; Knapp, E.E.; North, M.P.; Safford, H.; Wayman, R.B. Drought, tree mortality, and wildfire in forests adapted to frequent fire. Bioscience 2018, 68, 77–88. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Page, W.G.; Jenkins, M.J.; Alexander, M.E. Crown fire potential in lodgepole pine forests during the red stage of mountain pine beetle attack. Forestry 2014, 87, 347–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schoennagel, T.; Veblen, T.T.; Negron, J.F.; Smith, J.M. Effects of mountain pine beetle on fuels and expected fire behavior in lodgepole pine forests. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e30002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jolly, M.W.; Parsons, R.A.; Hadlow, A.M.; Cohn, G.; McAllister, S.S.; Popp, J.B.; Hubbard, R.M.; Negron, J.F. Relationships between moisture, chemistry, and ignition of Pinus contorta needles during the early stages of mountain pine beetle attack. For. Ecol. Manag. 2012, 269, 52–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Page, W.G.; Jenkins, M.J.; Alexander, M.E. Foliar moisture content variations in lodgepole pine over the diurnal cycle during the red stage of mountain pine beetle attack. Environ. Model. Softw. 2013, 49, 98–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cruz, M.G.; Alexander, M.E. Assessing crown fire potential in coniferous forests of western North America: A critique of current approaches and recent simulation studies. Int. J. Wildland Fire 2010, 19, 377–398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hood, S.M.; Keane, R.E.; Smith, H.Y.; Egan, J.; Holsinger, L. Chapter 13—Conventional fire behavior modeling systems are inadequate for predicting fire behavior in bark beetle-impacted forests (Project INT-EM-F-11-03). In Forest Health Monitoring: National Status, Trends, and Analysis 2017; General Technical Report SRS-GTR-233; Potter, K.M., Conkling, B.L., Eds.; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station: Asheville, NC, USA, 2018; pp. 167–176. [Google Scholar]
- Perrakis, D.D.B.; Lanoville, R.A.; Taylor, S.W.; Hicks, D. Modeling wildfire spread in mountain pine beetle-affected forest stands, British Columbia, Canada. Fire Ecol. 2014, 10, 10–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Parker, R.; Vitalis, A.; Walker, R.; Riley, D.; Pearce, H.G. Measuring wildland fire fighter performance with wearable technology. Appl. Ergon. 2017, 59, 34–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Incident Name | Location A | Date (Month/Year) | Fire size (ha) | MPB Phase | % MPB Mortality | Predominant Stand Composition C | Surface Fuel Characteristics D | Topography | Weather Variables E |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Boswell | Larimer County, CO/ARP | 8/2010 | 36 | Red | 50–90 | LP | Needlecast, grass, moderate 1000-h | Steep drainages | Pre-frontal winds, moderate conditions |
Church Park | Grand County, CO/ARP | 10/2010 | 192 | Mixed (red/gray) | 50–80 | LP, ES, SF | Needlecast, grass, moderate 1000-h | Mountain-side, ridgeline | Pre-frontal winds, moderate conditions |
Cow Creek | Larimer County, CO/RMNP | 6/2010 | 486 | Mixed | 0–50 | LP, ES, SF | Needlecast, grass, moderate 1000-h | Steep drainages | Early summer, moderate conditions |
Crystal | Larimer County, CO/Private | 4/2011 | 1190 | Gray | 10–20 | PP, LP | Needlecast, grass, 1000-moderate h | Ridgeline | 80 km h−1 gusts |
Fern Lake | Larimer County, CO/RMNP | 10/2012 | 1416 | Gray | 40–60 | LP | Needlecast, grass, heavy 1000-h | Mountain-side, subalpine | Multiple wind events, moderate conditions |
High Park | Larimer County, CO/ARP | 6/2012 | 35,338 | Red | 50–80 | PP, LP | Needlecast, limited 1000-h | Steep slopes, ridgeline | Multiple wind events, drought |
Illinois Creek | Albany County, WY/MBR | 9/2010 | 49 | Red | 50–90 | LP, ES | Needlecast, limited 1000-h | Flat, small drainages | Wind event, moderate conditions |
Onahu | Larimer County, CO/RMNP | 9/2010 | 12 | Gray | 80–100 | LP | Grass, standing dead stems | Flat, small drainages | Drought, moderate conditions |
Roach | Larimer County, CO/ARP | 8/2012 | 47 | Mixed | 60–90 | LP | Needlecast, moderate 1000-h | Flat, small drainages | Drought, moderate conditions |
Sheep Creek 2 Rx | Larimer County, CO/ARP | 2008, 2011 B | 61 | Red | 50–70 | LP | Needlecast, limited 1000-h | Small drainages, ridgelines | Within Rx prescription |
Squirrel Creek | Albany County, WY/MBR | 7/2012 | 4421 | Red | 50–70 | LP | Needlecast, limited 1000-h | Flat, small drainages | Multiple wind events, drought |
Sylvan | Grand County, CO/ARP | 5/2012 | 0.5 | Gray, downed | 90–100 | LP, SF | Needlecast, grass, heavy 1000-h | Steep drainages, ridgeline | Moderate conditions |
Wheeler | Jackson County, CO/BLM | 8/2010 | 1 | Mixed | 70–100 | LP | Needlecast, moderate 1000-h | Flat, small drainages | Moderate conditions |
Interview Code | Agency A | Seasons of Experience | Fire Incidents | Position(s) Held on Fires B |
---|---|---|---|---|
FF1 | NPS | 4 | Cow Creek, Fern Lake | Firefighter Type 2; Fire Effects Monitor |
FF2 | USFS | 28 | Church Park, Fern Lake | Engine Boss |
FF3 | CSFS | 33 | High Park | Agency Representative |
FF4 | USFS | 13 | Boswell, Illinois Creek, Squirrel Creek, Roach | Engine Boss; Field Observer; Incident Commander Type 4; Operations Section Chief; Division Supervisor |
FF5 | TNC, USFS | 13 | Boswell, Church Park | Crew Boss, Assistant Superintendent, Interagency Hotshot Crew |
FF6 | USFS | 11 | Boswell, Illinois Creek, Roach | Incident Commander Type 4 (trainee), Crew Boss, Operations Section Chief |
FF7 | USFS | 14 | Boswell, Squirrel Creek, Roach | Crew Boss, Incident Commander Type 4, Task Force Leader (trainee), Division Supervisor, Engine Boss |
FF8 | NPS | 10 | Cow Creek, Fern Lake | Firefighter Type 2; Faller Class B |
FF9 | CDFPC | 11 | Fern Lake | Engine Boss |
FF10 | USFS | 12 | Church Park, Sylvan | Engine Boss |
FF11 | USFS | 17 | High Park, Roach, Fern Lake | Task Force Leader; Division Supervisor; Engine Boss |
FF12 | USFS | 18 | Wheeler Creek, Illinois Creek | Wildland Fire Module Leader, Task Force Leader |
FF13 | USFS | 6 | Cow Creek, Fern Lake | Faller Class B, Firefighter Type 1 |
FF14 | TNC | 11 | Illinois Creek | Firefighter Type 1, Assistant Wildland Fire Module Leader |
FF15 | USFS | 14 | Illinois Creek, Squirrel Creek | Incident Commander Type 3 (trainee) |
FF16 | USFS | 10 | Fern Lake | Engine Boss |
FF17 | USFS | 19 | High Park, Sheep Creek Rx | Division Supervisor; Burn Boss Type 2 |
FF18 | NPS | 4 | Cow Creek, Fern Lake | Faller Class B; Firefighter Type 2 |
FF19 | USFS | 28 | Illinois Creek, Squirrel Creek | Fire Management Officer; Incident Commander Type 3 |
FF20 | CDFPC | 13 | High Park | Engine Boss |
FF21 | NPS | 22 | Cow Creek, Fern Lake | Fire Management Officer; Incident Commander Type 3 |
FF22 | USFS | 18 | Boswell | Crew Boss |
FF23 | CDFPC | 25 | High Park | Fire Behavior Analyst |
FF24 | NPS | 10 | Boswell, High Park | Firefighter Type 1, Squad boss, Interagency Hot Shot Crew |
FF25 | NPS | 16 | Onahu | Engine Boss |
FF26 | TNC | 3 | Illinois Creek, Wheeler Creek | Firefighter Type 2 |
FF27 | Larimer County | 18 | Crystal, High Park, Roach, Fern Lake | Plans Section Chief, Division Supervisor, Agency Representative |
FF28 | NPS | 8 | Boswell, High Park | Firefighter Type 1; Squad Boss, Interagency Hotshot Crew |
Surprising Fire Behavior | MPB Phase | Incidents in Which Surprises Were Observed | Number of Observations | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Red | Gray | Old | |||
Increased fire behavior from expected | x | x | x | Boswell, Cow Creek, Fern Lake, High Park, Illinois Creek, Roach, Squirrel Creek | 19 |
Increased spotting | x | Boswell, Illinois Creek, Squirrel Creek, High Park, Fern Lake, Roach | 9 | ||
Faster surface-to-crown fire transition | x | Boswell, Fern Lake, High Park, Illinois Creek, Sheep Creek 2Rx | 7 | ||
Lack of fire perimeter growth | x | x | Boswell, Illinois Creek, Roach | 6 | |
Crown fire transition with limited or no ladder fuels | x | Illinois Creek, High Park, Sheep Creek 2 Rx | 4 | ||
Active crown fire propagation | x | x | Fern Lake, Roach, Boswell | 3 | |
Active flaming in standing dead | x | Onahu | 1 | ||
Intense heat | x | Sylvan, Wheeler Creek | 2 |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Moriarty, K.; Cheng, A.S.; Hoffman, C.M.; Cottrell, S.P.; Alexander, M.E. Firefighter Observations of “Surprising” Fire Behavior in Mountain Pine Beetle-Attacked Lodgepole Pine Forests. Fire 2019, 2, 34. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire2020034
Moriarty K, Cheng AS, Hoffman CM, Cottrell SP, Alexander ME. Firefighter Observations of “Surprising” Fire Behavior in Mountain Pine Beetle-Attacked Lodgepole Pine Forests. Fire. 2019; 2(2):34. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire2020034
Chicago/Turabian StyleMoriarty, Kevin, Antony S. Cheng, Chad M. Hoffman, Stuart P. Cottrell, and Martin E. Alexander. 2019. "Firefighter Observations of “Surprising” Fire Behavior in Mountain Pine Beetle-Attacked Lodgepole Pine Forests" Fire 2, no. 2: 34. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire2020034