Photovoltaic Solar Cells: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Solar Cells
2.1. The Working Principle of PV Cells
- Absorption of photons in a p-n junction electronic semiconductor to generate the charge carriers (electron-hole pairs). The absorption of a photon with energy (E = hυ) higher than the gap energy ‘Eg’ of the doped semiconductor material means that its energy is used to excite an electron from the valence band ‘Eυ’ to the conduction band ‘Ec’ leaving a void (hole) at the valance level. Additional kinetic energy is given to the electron or hole by the excess photon energy (hυ–hυ0). ‘hυ0′ is the minimum energy or work function of the semiconductor required to generate an electron-hole pair. The work function here represents the energy gap. The excess energy is dissipated as heat in the semiconductor [21,22].
- Consequent separation of the light-generated charge carriers. In an external solar circuit, the holes can flow away from the junction through the p-region, and electrons can flow out across the n-region and pass through the circuit before they recombine with the holes.
- Finally, the separated electrons can be used to drive an electric circuit. After the electrons passed through the circuit, they will recombine with the holes.
2.2. Solar Cell Panels
2.3. Components of Solar Power System
2.4. p-n Junction Solar Cell
2.4.1. Formation of the Depletion Region
2.4.2. p-n Junction Solar Cell under Applied Voltage
2.4.3. PV Cell under Illumination
- The net flow of the electrons and holes in a p-n junction semiconductor under equilibrium conditions will generate two currents: ‘Idiff’ and ‘Idrift’. These currents balance and cancel each other at the equilibrium state.
- If an external source is deployed to the p-n junction, the generated current is the diode current ‘Id’.
- Under illumination, the p-n junction will present another current called light or photocurrent ‘Iph’.
2.5. I-V and P-V Characteristics
- Short-circuit current density ‘Isc’ occurs at (R = 0 and V = 0)
- Open-circuit voltage ‘Voc’ (no-load, I = 0 and R = ∞)
- Fill factor ‘FF’ that represents the ratio of ‘Pmax’ to the electrical output of ‘Voc’ and ‘Isc’
2.6. Design Considerations
2.7. Materials Employed in PV Cells
2.7.1. III-V PV Gallium Arsenide
2.7.2. Future Trends
2.8. Challenges in Solar Cells
3. Simulation of Solar Cells and Modules
3.1. Simulation of Solar Cells by MATLAB/Simulink
3.2. Simulation of Solar Cells by COMSOL/Multiphysics
- Creating a user-defined, spatially dependent variable for the generation rate, using an integral expression involving the solar radiation ‘F(λ)’, which is used to find the rate of photon generation ‘ϕ(λ)’.
- 2.
- Create the geometry.
- 3.
- Define the materials.
- 4.
- Determine the uniform bulk and surface as well as the doping junction depth.
- 5.
- Boundary selection for doping profiles and metal contacts.
- 6.
- The Shockley–Read–Hall model (SRH) is employed using the feature of trap-assisted recombination for the uniform bulk doping by the analytic doping feature and surface doping by the geometric doping feature.
- 7.
4. Summary and Outlook
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Material | Sub-Material | PCE | Advantages | Problems |
---|---|---|---|---|
c-Si | Single crystal | 20% [53] | ||
Polycrystal | 16% [60] | Cost-effective as compared to the monocrystalline module [54]. | ||
Thin Films | a-Si | 11.3% [61] | ||
CdTe/CdS | 18.3% [10] | |||
CIS/CIGS | 22.8% [63] |
| In and Ga sources are limited [65]. | |
GaAs | Over 30% [66] |
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Al-Ezzi, A.S.; Ansari, M.N.M. Photovoltaic Solar Cells: A Review. Appl. Syst. Innov. 2022, 5, 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/asi5040067
Al-Ezzi AS, Ansari MNM. Photovoltaic Solar Cells: A Review. Applied System Innovation. 2022; 5(4):67. https://doi.org/10.3390/asi5040067
Chicago/Turabian StyleAl-Ezzi, Athil S., and Mohamed Nainar M. Ansari. 2022. "Photovoltaic Solar Cells: A Review" Applied System Innovation 5, no. 4: 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/asi5040067