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Review

The 3D Product Model Research Evolution and Future Trends: A Systematic Literature Review

by
Carl Kirpes
1,
Guiping Hu
2,* and
Dave Sly
1
1
Industrial and Manufacturing Systems Engineering (IMSE), Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
2
Department of Sustainability, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Syst. Innov. 2022, 5(2), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/asi5020029
Submission received: 22 December 2021 / Revised: 9 February 2022 / Accepted: 11 February 2022 / Published: 22 February 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The 3D product model has long been a tool used by engineers to design and plan for the physical creation of a 3D object. The way in which the 3D product model has been applied to production and assembly processes has evolved over time, yet the current body of knowledge does not document that evolution. The purpose of this article is to collect and structure the evolution of 3D product model research, categorizing the ways in which the body of knowledge has evolved over time, while also providing a look into projected applications and research focuses of the 3D product model. The result of this article is the development of sixteen 3D product model research themes and the categorization of the body of knowledge within those themes, establishing a basis for 3D product model research ontology. Then, the paper explores where the evolution of the 3D product model is trending based on discussions with industry experts. The authors aim to provide a foundation for a comprehensive and interdisciplinary discussion amongst academia and industry about the current state and future trends of research on the 3D product model and its application in production and assembly processes.

1. Introduction

Three-dimensional (3D) product models generate value to manufacturing companies in multiple stages of the engineering, assembly, and production processes [1]. Initially used primarily as a design tool, the 3D product model focused on helping engineers create visual models of the product they intended to create. The 3D product model later moved into the production and assembly processes, helping create value in a variety of ways, from allowing operators to see how a product is configured to ensuring the right parts, tools, work instructions, and other critical components are assigned to the right stations [1,2]. With the development of new software and technologies, the stage is now set for the 3D product model to be utilized in emerging applications and frontiers of industrial and systems engineering [3,4]. The authors note that the 3D product model can have a large array of meanings from the virtual computer-aided design (CAD) model, to a digital mock-up, to a digital twin, or even a physical 3D model. The 3D product model application focused on in this paper is the value of bringing the virtual CAD model and digital 3D assembly mock-up to the assembly process beyond the engineering design. The authors have recognized that the 3D product models usability has increased as computer graphics have improved, mathematical models have emerged to simplify the 3D product model representations, and technology such as virtual reality glasses provide new 3D product model applications. As concepts such as artificial intelligence, robotics, and the digital twin emerge in both academia and industry, the authors aimed to understand the 3D product models role in these evolving applications. Doing so led the authors down a path of reviewing how the 3D product model research has developed to date, which was followed by interviewing industry experts on anticipated future trends.
The authors recognized a significant amount of research in the body of knowledge on 3D product models with similar focus topics but did not come across any research that established themes around these topics and categorized the research accordingly. This generated the question “How has the 3D product model research evolved over time?” and, once these themes were determined, “Where is the research and industry applications of the 3D product model projected to head in the future?” The authors’ intent is to answer those questions and close the current gap in the research, providing the foundation for future comprehensive 3D product model research ontology. This work collects a comprehensive list of approximately 300 articles and conference proceedings that discuss the 3D product model and its applications to assembly and production processes, develops themes across the research, categorizes the research by those themes, and projects future applications and research trends.

2. Materials and Methods

The schematic of the research methodology used in this research is show in Figure 1.
The research team searched the Compendex database for articles that contained any variation of the term “3D” and “assembly” while excluding “printing.” The objective of this search was to identify the body of literature in the engineering field that focused on 3D product models and their application in assembly operations. This search generated over 40,000 relevant database entries and, when limited to English, resulted in 38,934 records. When limited further to journal articles, the search results in approximately 24,690 records. To view how the magnitude of research on the 3D product model has evolved over time, the authors sorted the research entries by year, as show in Figure 2. While there were articles written on the 3D product model prior to 1970, the number recorded in the database was minimal, and the authors have excluded them from the figure to make the remainder of the figure large enough to be legible. That said, the articles that predate 1970 have been considered in our analysis.
Then, the authors reviewed the title and abstracts of the journal articles returned in the search. Given the intent of this research was to review how the 3D product model research has evolved over time, the authors started with the oldest research articles and began to comb through them to identify research trends. As the authors progressed, the team was able to determine additional search terms that could be excluded to reduce the quantity of articles to review without eliminating large swaths of the body of knowledge that would be applicable to the research. The term “printing” was excluded to remove the research surrounding 3D printing, as the authors were primarily focused on the application of 3D product models in manufacturing facilities requiring production and assembly operations.
The authors do note that the 3D product model has a direct tie to the 3D printing application, as the 3D product model is the foundation of 3D printing and even computer numerical control (CNC) milling and machining techniques. While 3D printing and enhanced machining capabilities are a key component of the 4th industrial revolution and do tie back to the 3D product model, the authors’ aim in this research was to focus on the assembly process. While in some cases, enhanced 3D printing and machine techniques can be used to replace the need for assembly altogether (given that complex shapes and geometries can now be produced as a single component, which was not previously feasible), there are still a large number of applications where assembly is critical. Such applications include assemblies of complex equipment in industries such as motor vehicles, industrial machinery, aerospace, medical products, construction and farm machinery, and electronics. These industries are the primary focus of this research, which is why the authors have chosen to exclude “printing” as a search term, to target the research to those industries that involve complex assembly operations. For readers who are interested in learning more about 3D printing and its role in industry 4.0, the authors included some supplemental references [5,6,7].
To remove research surrounding 3D fluid flows that are not applicable to the application of 3D product models in assembly operations, the terms “convection, laminar, petroleum, thermal, and thermo” were added to the list of excluded terms. Likewise, the words “carbon, chemical, chemistry, nuclear, and nano” were excluded as the research with those terms tended to focus on 3D molecular structures. The final excluded terms added were “structural and semiconductor”, as the authors were primarily interested in the application of 3D product models to products that would be produced in a manufacturing facility with size and scale requiring production and assembly processes, versus application to building structures or electrical components. These excluded terms were developed based on the authors’ initial review of the data to determine segments of research that the database query was returning that were not applicable.
The exclusion of the terms shown in above reduced the records to closer to 4000. These were broken down by decade, as shown in Table 1.
Then, the authors reviewed the remaining articles and summarized the key findings in those that are relevant. Not all records that remained after the search terms noted above were relevant, so the authors spent a great deal of time reviewing the remaining records to capture the research work applicable to the evolution of 3D product model research over time. The results are presented in the next section.

3. Results

In reviewing the body of literature of the 3D product model research, the authors developed the following themes that the research focused on around the 3D product model. These themes and the corresponding number of applicable research papers that reference them are noted in Table 2.
To provide additional visibility into how these research themes were developed, the authors have listed the research articles and conference proceedings that were used to determine these research themes. Given all these articles and conference proceedings are being referenced simultaneously in Table 3, the authors chose to list the references in alphabetical order by last name in the References section It is of note that the authors chose to assign one research theme per publication and thus selected the most prominent theme.
While Table 3 provides the research corresponding to each 3D product model theme, it does not show a clear visual of the research evolution over time. The authors also developed how the 3D product model research evolved by decade, as shown in Figure 3.
The themes over time and the amount of research in each decade can be combined to then find what the major themes were for each decade of research. Table 4 demonstrates the research in quantity of research articles by research them by decade over time.
As the data show, the 3D product model started as a tool mainly used for product design all the way through the 1990s. In the 1990s, virtual reality and virtual assembly began to be discussed, along with the idea of using the 3D model beyond just product design for applications in assembly line and assembly station layout planning.
In the 2000s, the research focused shifted from just designing the product to also designing for assembly. The importance of how 3D product models could assist in geometric dimensioning and tolerancing increased, and the use of 3D product models in virtual environments gained further traction. The 2000s also showed the start of research on how the 3D product model could be used in web-based applications, and early discussions on moving beyond virtual reality to augmented reality began.
In the 2010s, the importance of structuring the 3D product models so that the data within them could be more easily processed by computers began to take off. While virtual reality and virtual assembly applications of the 3D product model remained strong, augmented reality and combining the virtual and physical environments gained traction. In addition, with the further development of more 3D product models, the need arose to reduce redundancy in creating 3D product models, and research grew on how to query databases of 3D product models to find already designed parts and assemblies. Deploying the 3D product model to the shop floor via virtual training and virtual work instructions also was a research topic that garnered support.
In the 2020s, the concept of the 3D product model applications has seen another shift. While augmented reality remains a relevant topic, much of the research has moved to the application of the 3D product model in artificial intelligence and digital twins.
The authors’ development of the sixteen 3D product model research themes and the categorization, by decade, of the body of knowledge into those themes answers the question of how the 3D product model research has evolved overtime. Then, the 3D product model research themes developed in this work provide the foundation for a future comprehensive 3D product model research ontology.

4. Discussion

4.1. The 3D Product Model Research Evolution

As seen in the Results section, the authors were able to develop 3D product model research themes and identify trends in those research themes over time. These trends will be discussed in greater detail, with specific examples throughout the Discussion section of this paper.

4.1.1. 1940s to 1960s

In the 1940s to the 1960s personal computers were not yet in existence, and so while companies and individuals were developing engineering drawings, they were doing so by hand. Many of the engineering drawings were done in two dimensions but, even before the existence of a personal computer to aid in 3D product model development, companies were still finding applications for the development and use of 3D models. In 1941, Douglas Aircraft was using hand-drawn three-dimensional drawings to speed up the planning and operation of their mass production assembly lines, and by 1942, Boeing had begun doing the same [76,253]. In some instances, a miniature physical 3D model of the plant and the product were being developed, such as at Ford Motor Company in 1947 followed by other organizations in the 1950s [16,196].

4.1.2. 1970s

In the 1970s, the research remained largely focused on using the 3D product model for product design. That research included a range of applications from how 3D product models could be used in the design of a diesel engine to the design of buildings [114,215,216]. In addition, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers published research that was the first of its kind to account for tolerances and dimensioning of 3D models [77]. Research also began on how databases can be used to capture the information that a 3D product model contains [113].

4.1.3. 1980s

In the 1980s, again, the focus of the 3D product model research remained on product design, with many large organizations concentrating research efforts in this area, including research sponsored by organizations such as IBM, Austin Rover, McDonnel Douglas, and Northrop Aircraft [27,139,221,274]. However, the research also built on the trends started in the 1970s of 3D product model geometric dimensioning and tolerancing as well as data processing of the 3D product model. Organizations that were focused on the data processing of the 3D product models and reviewing the ways in which users wanted to access the 3D product model data included IBM, Princeton, and Combustion Engineering [111,235,280]. In the same decade, both John Deere and Eastman-Kodak focused research on geometric dimensioning and tolerancing of 3D product models to statistically analyze tolerance stack-up and develop probability information on how assembly dimensions are distributed when parts are assembled [74,208,227]. The 1980s also saw the first development of research focused on moving beyond the product design focus to include the impact the 3D product model has on the assembly sequence [140].

4.1.4. 1990s

While product design continued to be the focus of the 3D product model research in the 1990s, the emergence of new technologies enabled research to begin on virtual assembly and using the 3D product model in virtual environments. The research on the virtual assembly of 3D products included the implementation of force feedback systems from the virtual environment to the physical environment at the Institute of Technology in Japan, combining human movement in the assembly of 3D products in the virtual environment with ergonomics research at Caterpillar and using the virtual environment for virtual assembly training at Motorola [75,110,279]. The virtual environment and 3D product model were also used at Iowa State University’s Virtual Reality Applications Center to identify the impact that part shapes have on the stresses on that part and make modifications in real time [222]. Technology and research also emerged in the 1990s to not only apply the virtual environment to the physical world but also reverse engineer the physical world into the 3D virtual environment. Scanning technologies and coordinate measuring machines (CMM) were used to capture key data points of physical objects and translate them into 3D models [66,118].

4.1.5. 2000s

In the 2000s, the research shifted from the 3D product model design to 3D product model design for assembly. Research emerged on computer-aided assembly planning systems, with applications ranging from electromechanical components to pumps, torque converters, golfcarts, and aircraft [30,82,163,183,192]. As research on design for assembly grew, so did the use of the 3D product models for virtual assembly training and the development of virtual work instructions [187,226]. On the research front of geometric dimensioning and tolerancing of 3D product models, the literature moved beyond applying probabilities to tolerance stack-up to determining the optimal configuration of variant part assemblies, in addition to the tradeoffs between improved tolerances and associated costs that were reviewed in the 3D product model development stage [124,156]. The functionality of the internet and world wide web also improved greatly in the 2000s, and with that came research on how to deploy 3D product models over the web, with the development of the virtual reality modeling language (VRML) aimed at meeting that objective. With the advent of VRML, researchers looked to increase its functionality via proposing solutions such as concurrent design environments, drag-and-drop applications, and manufacturing task planning over the web [64,205,269]. This technology enabled different individuals located in different locations around the world to simultaneously work on and edit the same 3D product model. In the 2000s, the first research on augmented reality using the 3D product model also emerged, with early applications including the evaluation of assembly sequencing and prototyping using both physical and virtual models simultaneously [179,193].

4.1.6. 2010s

From the 2000s to the 2010s, the research on 3D product models continued to accelerate. Key focus areas of that research included enhancing the ability of the 3D product model data to be processed by computers, the need to catalogue 3D product model parts in a library for reference-and-reuse versus recreation, and a larger focus on augmented reality applications. To enhance 3D product model data processing, compression algorithms were developed, mesh segmentation of the 3D model was utilized, and programs were developed to convert 3D product model file formats to standardized formats [62,207,285]. Model-based definition structures and lightweight 3D models were also developed to enhance data processing [94,95,233,234]. As more 3D models are developed, the need began to arise for a library of 3D product models that could be referenced and reused rather than recreated. Research on ways to achieve the reuse of existing 3D product models from 3D product model libraries included assembly-based modeling, 3D CAD assembly model matching, and a significant subassemblies approach [54,137,138,290]. In the 2010s, the application of augmented reality also spread across and intertwined with other research categories of the 3D product model, including design for assembly, assembly planning, and disassembly [55,186,268].

4.1.7. 2020s

While, at the time of this writing, we are still early in the decade of the 2020s, the 3D product model research has evolved to focusing on the application of the 3D product model in artificial intelligence, robotics, and the digital twin. The 3D product model is at the confluence of these areas, being applied to robotic assembly via digital twin technology and serving as a digital representation of the physical space on a real-time basis [103,159]. The 3D product model also continues to be applied in augmented reality applications, with recent research focused on user cognitive load and user satisfaction when utilizing these Industry 4.0 augmented reality applications [170].

4.2. The 3D Product Model Research Current State and Future Trends

In discussions with industry experts, as we move through the 2020s into the 2030s and beyond, a number of trends are anticipated to play out in 3D product model research and industry applications. As organizations evolve and enterprise architecture interdisciplinary teams develop, the application of the 3D product model and the information they contain will become more broadly available beyond segregated departments such as information technology or operations. This will enable a federated approach in which having the 3D product model data will better enable teams to autonomously make decisions needed to reach the organization’s key objectives. The standardization of data methods across industries will be a key enabler of this autonomy and accelerate the adoption of the 3D product model in areas such as analytics, machine learning, and the internet of things (IOT). The 3D product model will move from an analytic tool to becoming an integral part of the product lifecycle, where the evolution of the geometry and key characteristics of the product will also be able to be modeled in real time as the product moves through the production process.
Knowing the evolution of the part geometry through the production process will enable marring the product digital twin with the process digital twin and create opportunities such as knowing what products are best to be ordered based on machine set-up, calibration, and dimensions for less changeover time via the sequencing of similar parts. The marrying of the product digital twin and process digital twin will also help mine out manufacturing patterns to generatively create designs and help determine the best manufacturing processes for a given 3D product model geometry. In addition, marring the product digital twin with the process digital twin can be coupled with the use of neural nets to reduce individual stock-keeping units (SKUs) through providing recommendations on 3D product model parts to combine based on both geometry and the manufacturing processes used to create them. As new parts are designed, the computer will also be able to provide design recommendations based on previously developed 3D product model parts clusters. This evolution combines product design with design for assembly and design for manufacturability.
Over time, machine learning will be able to be used to associate manufacturing operations to the engineering 3D product model design. Any two parts that come together are joined somehow, and the computer will learn to determine how those geometries should be manufactured and assembled, including what tooling to use to do so. Machine learning of the 3D product model will also enable the development of numerical control (NC) program generation, and inspections plans will be automatically generated that are needed to manufacture, assemble, and inspect a part/assembly. Such developments will require parallel computation and quantum computing to account for the correlation and make such solutions possible.
Eventually, the sustainability and repurposing of material will also become a cognizant component of the 3D product model design. The design, manufacturing processes, and operations will be done in such a way to allow that product to be easily upgraded and/or reused in different ways for subtle tasks.

5. Conclusions

The 3D product model opens a vast array of possibilities, from how the product is designed to how it is manufactured assembled, transported, serviced, and re-used. This article identified research themes in the 3D product model research evolution, categorized the research by those themes, and provides a look into the future on 3D product model research that is currently under development and yet to come. Overall, 16 research themes were identified, including applications of research on how the 3D product model fits into emerging frontiers such as artificial intelligence, robotics, and the digital twin.
The major research themes were identified in a one-to-one relationship between the research themes and the literature. Future research could evaluate a one-to-many relationship in which the literature is assigned multiple research themes, to add additional context around the 3D product model research evolution. In addition, this research used Compendex as the database of record, so other sources (such as Scopus) could be used to further evaluate and expand the body of knowledge and research themes collected in this work. Many of the research themes were listed in the literature, but definitions on these research themes were not always explicitly provided. Thus, the research themes in this work are based on the knowledge, expertise, and perspectives of the authors. The authors aimed to increase the transparency of the research theme development by sharing the previously published research that applied to these themes. The authors encourage others to provide feedback and challenge the selection of the research themes and projected future trends.
This article can be thought of as a first step in defining the 3D product model research evolution and future trends. As research on the 3D product model and its application to production and assembly processes continues to develop, the authors anticipate these research themes will continue to be broadened and enhanced further.

Author Contributions

C.K. and G.H. conceived the idea. C.K. formulated the problem, developed the research themes, and worked with industry participants to determine probable future research trends. G.H. and D.S. provided guidance throughout the research and proofread the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to this version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available in Section 2 and Section 3 of the manuscript. Specific references in the Discussion section have been generalized to protect the right of the industry experts (who collaborated in this research) to remain anonymous while still retaining the relevance of the data.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the industrial and systems engineers who are experts in their field and provided their perspective on the future trends of 3D product model research.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Asi 05 00029 g001 550
Figure 1. Schematic of research methodology.
Figure 1. Schematic of research methodology.
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Figure 2. Compendex research records on the 3D product model with an assembly reference over time.
Figure 2. Compendex research records on the 3D product model with an assembly reference over time.
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Figure 3. Three-dimensional (3D) product model research themes evolution over time.
Figure 3. Three-dimensional (3D) product model research themes evolution over time.
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Table
Table 1. Three-dimensional (3D) product model journal articles in English from Compendex records by decade.
Table 1. Three-dimensional (3D) product model journal articles in English from Compendex records by decade.
Decade(s)Compendex Journal Article RecordsCompendex Records (Limited by Search Terms)
1940s–1960s2420
1970s51
1980s18899
1990s957354
2000s4662943
2010s14,4281824
2020s4416501
Total24,6883742
Table
Table 2. Three-dimensional (3D) product model research themes and associated number of references.
Table 2. Three-dimensional (3D) product model research themes and associated number of references.
S. No3D Product Model Research Themes# of Reference (s)
1Product Design37
2Design for Assembly21
3Data Processing22
4Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T)34
5Assembly Sequence Planning34
6Virtual Assembly/Virtual Reality (VR)27
7Assembly line/Station layout planning24
8Interpolation between 2D and 3D Models10
9Reverse Engineering/Scanning Technology7
10Assembly Feasibility4
11Web-Based Applications14
12Virtual Training/Work Instructions (WI)13
13Augmented Reality (AR)21
143D Model Library13
15Disassembly3
16Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Digital Twin8
Total 292
Table 3. Three-dimensional (3D) product model research themes and associated references [8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,165,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173,174,175,176,177,178,179,180,181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,191,192,193,194,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208,209,210,211,212,213,214,215,216,217,218,219,220,221,222,223,224,225,226,227,228,229,230,231,232,233,234,235,236,237,238,239,240,241,242,243,244,245,246,247,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,258,259,260,261,262,263,264,265,266,267,268,269,270,271,272,273,274,275,276,277,278,279,280,281,282,283,284,285,286,287,288,289,290,291,292,293,294,295,296,297,298,299].
S. No3D Product Model Research ThemesReference(s)
1Product Design[11,12,14,15,21,24,27,41,42,46,65,67,72,76,81,84,100,102,106,114,134,139,172,176,195,196,212,215,216,221,232,243,244,253,270,274,275,277]
2Design for Assembly[16,19,22,30,58,82,98,116,120,155,163,181,183,192,204,211,220,260,267,273,289]
3Data Processing[9,62,95,111,113,149,150,151,173,175,185,207,217,233,234,235,276,280,282,283,285,287]
4Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing[17,29,50,69,70,71,74,77,91,105,122,143,154,156,157,158,164,167,198,200,201,208,210,223,227,238,239,242,247,251,261,291,294,298]
5Assembly Sequence Planning[32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,57,59,60,61,79,90,98,99,117,126,128,130,140,146,165,171,190,209,225,229,237,240,245,246,259,297]
6Virtual Assembly/Virtual Reality[18,43,45,53,75,93,96,109,110,119,123,125,133,152,197,214,222,224,231,250,254,258,279,286,295,296,299]
7Assembly line/station layout planning[10,25,40,44,47,78,80,83,86,87,92,135,147,153,169,182,194,202,228,236,252,256,257,271,272,288]
8Interpolation between 2D and 3D Models[8,28,85,168,213,219,248,255,263,278]
9Reverse Engineering/Scanning Technology[20,48,66,118,199,230,262]
10Assembly Feasibility[13,129,144,218]
11Web-Based Applications[52,63,64,68,131,132,148,160,161,191,205,241,266,269]
12Virtual Training/Work Instructions[26,49,51,112,127,141,174,177,178,187,189,226,281]
13Augmented Reality[55,56,73,88,89,97,115,145,162,170,179,186,188,193,206,258,264,265,268,292]
143D Model Library[54,121,122,136,137,138,142,166,180,184,203,284,290]
15Disassembly[23,94,104]
16Artificial Intelligence and Digital Twin[31,101,103,107,108,159,249,293]
Table
Table 4. Three-dimensional (3D) product model research themes evolution with journal article count.
Table 4. Three-dimensional (3D) product model research themes evolution with journal article count.
S. No3D Product Model Research Themes1940s–1960s1970s1980s1990s2000s2010s2020s
1Product Design3412153
2Design for Assembly3 2151
3Data Processing 261211
4Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing 13111153
5Assembly Sequence Planning 129211
6Virtual Assembly/Virtual Reality 61110
7Assembly line/station layout planning 7683
8Interpolation between 2D and 3D Models 2431
9Reverse Engineering/Scanning Technology 2131
10Assembly Feasibility 121
11Web-Based Applications 941
12Virtual Training/Work Instructions 292
13Augmented Reality 2127
143D Model Library 1111
15Disassembly 3
16Artificial Intelligence and Digital Twin 17
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Kirpes C, Hu G, Sly D. The 3D Product Model Research Evolution and Future Trends: A Systematic Literature Review. Applied System Innovation. 2022; 5(2):29. https://doi.org/10.3390/asi5020029

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Kirpes, Carl, Guiping Hu, and Dave Sly. 2022. "The 3D Product Model Research Evolution and Future Trends: A Systematic Literature Review" Applied System Innovation 5, no. 2: 29. https://doi.org/10.3390/asi5020029

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