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Article

Food Production and Landscape Reconstruction of Liangzhu Culture Village (5000–4600 B.P.)—Archaeobotanical Evidence from the Site of Zhumucun, Southern China

by
Xiaoqu Zheng
1,*,
Fan Yang
2,*,
Mingli Sun
3 and
Qinyu Chen
2
1
School of Cultural Heritage and Information Management, Shanghai University, 99 Shangda Road, BaoShan District, Shanghai 200444, China
2
National Centre for Archaeology, 21 Zhuan Jiao Lou Nan Li, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100013, China
3
Suzhou Museum, 204 Dong Bei Street, Suzhou 215001, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Quaternary 2025, 8(2), 21; https://doi.org/10.3390/quat8020021
Submission received: 9 February 2025 / Revised: 5 March 2025 / Accepted: 17 April 2025 / Published: 27 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Archaeology in the Late Quaternary: Emerging Materials, Methods, Issues and Perspectives)
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Abstract

:
Preserved macro-botanical and charcoal remains collected from the Zhumucun site have revealed the paleodiet and agricultural production of a small settlement during the Liangzhu period. Further, they have also helped to reconstruct the landscape and social organization that occurred therein. The plant remains assemblage shows that rice was the main crop at this site; however, the appearance of the millets may also indicate the spread and communication between southern and northern China. An analysis of the discarded spikelets confirmed that rice was locally produced and processed. A study of charcoal helped restore the vegetation landscape in the settlement and provided valuable insights for reconstructing the functional zoning and agricultural production at the site. Following an analysis of the plant distribution and utilization patterns at the site, it became clear that the Zhumucun site functioned as a small agricultural settlement. Compared to other settlements from the Liangzhu period, the Zhumucun site likely supported a smaller population. The site could be divided into smaller groups, including facilities in residential areas, processing areas, tomb areas, and farming areas. Agricultural production at the Zhumucun site appears to have been highly coordinated, with activities carried out in a unified manner and primarily by local households. This efficient system of resource management likely reflects a well-organized labor structure, where food surpluses may have been redistributed to support other higher-level settlements.

1. Introduction

As the origin of rice domestication, the lower Yangtze River has been the subject of numerous surveys, excavations, and studies that have established clear Neolithic sequences of archaeological cultures that have helped to outline the changes in their subsistence, as well as the origin and development of agriculture [1,2,3,4,5,6]. The Liangzhu culture (5300–4300 cal yr BP) is regarded as a testament to the 5000-year history of Chinese civilization, attracting significant attention from the archaeological community [7]. Since the early 20th century, systematic archaeological excavations of the Liangzhu cultural complex have been conducted, covering a span of nine decades. These investigations have revealed monumental architectural features, including the Mojiaoshan ancient city, the Yujiashan and Meirendi sites, and elite burials such as the Fanshan and Yaoshan tombs [8,9,10]. Therein, the relevant relics, settlements, societal factors, and cultural characters have been well researched [11,12,13].
Current scholarship generally agrees that the Liangzhu culture represented a well-established kingdom, characterized by a clear social hierarchy, a tradition of jade rituals, and a relatively advanced agricultural system [7,14,15,16]. The archaeological ruins of Liangzhu City, located on the southwestern edge of the Yangtze Delta, were listed on the UNESCO World Heritage register in 2019 [17]. Extensive archaeological investigations, including stratigraphic analyses and radiometric dating, have established that the Liangzhu culture flourished for approximately one millennium in the Lower Yangtze River Basin [11,18]. When the Liangzhu culture collapsed, the regional culture was replaced by a much less developed culture known as the Qianshanyang Guangfulin/Maqiao culture at approximately 4300 cal yr B.P. [19]. Whether this collapse occurred due to environmental changes or societal reasons has received much attention and remains a matter of debate [12,20,21].
According to current research, the Liangzhu period is key in the evolution of Neolithic social complexity, as well as being a critical stage for the establishment of mature rice farming systems [22,23,24,25]. The discovery of earthen dams, as well as grave goods and an elite cemetery, all indicate the complexity that occurred in this period, with this trend also being reflected in the site’s hierarchy [26]. At present, the subsistence of the Liangzhu culture is generally considered to be in the form of a relatively mature rice farming industry [27,28]. However, marked variations in subsistence and agricultural production have been observed across settlements from different regions and sites in Liangzhu society. Yuan [18] has also discussed this from the perspective of zooarchaeology. In the largest settlement, the Mojiaoshan site, which is considered to be the core urban area of Liangzhu culture, archaeologists have found large-scale rice paddies and rice storage pits [29,30]. However, more evidence is still needed from smaller settlements to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of their society and agriculture.
In this study, we focus on carbonized macro-botanical assemblages, which include carbon fibers and carbonized seeds, spikelets, and fruits found at the Zhumucun site, to investigate these earlier people’s diet, crop production, food consumption, and regional function at a given Liangzhu site. Based on our analysis, we aim to speculate upon the livelihoods, agricultural productivity, landscape, and social structure at a small site during the Liangzhu period. Previous archaeobotanical studies have indicated that the resources used at the Zhumucun site are similar to those found in other Liangzhu settlements around Taihu Lake. While rice was the primary crop cultivated at the Zhumucun site, the inhabitants also utilized tree resources from the Fagaceae family and exploited aquatic plants such as Euryale ferox; additionally, melon and kiwi were frequently consumed as supplementary dietary items [31,32]. However, this study goes beyond the discussion of subsistence strategies; it investigates agricultural activities and reconstructs the landscape based on plant remains. Furthermore, it explores the organizational structure of production in a small settlement from the Liangzhu period, aiming to reconstruct the processes of food production, consumption, and landscape transformation.

2. Materials and Methods

The Zhumucun site is located in Kunshan City, Jiangsu Province, China. This site belongs to the middle stage of Liangzhu culture (5000–4600 B.P.). Since 2012, the Suzhou Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology has carried out an archaeological investigation and excavation of this site [33]. Based on the main sediment context, excavations have confirmed that this site was a settlement from the Liangzhu period, with some remains from the Eastern Zhou, Han, Tang, and Song periods having also been found. The site has an area of around 150,000 m2, with numerous ash pits, rice paddies, tombs, and houses having been discovered [31]. Specifically, most of these belong to the Liangzhu period. Systematic excavations at the Zhumucun site have uncovered a material assemblage typical of a peripheral settlement from the Liangzhu period, including domestic pottery fragments, basic stone tools, and non-elite jade ornaments. Stratigraphic and spatial analyses of architectural postholes, midden deposits, and limited burial features suggest that this site functioned as a small village, likely subordinate to the central Liangzhu polity at Mojiaoshan.
The excavation areas involved in this study are the key areas of the Zhumucun site, and they are located on the northeast and northwest sides of the site (Figure 1). The excavation adhered to traditional archaeological methods, progressing according to stratigraphic layers and carefully cleaning all remains. A total area of approximately 3300 m2 was excavated. During the 2014 excavation, 10 ancient paddy fields were found in the southeastern part of the excavation region, which was filled with dark gray clay, as well as the accidental discovery of charred rice [32]. In the western section of the area, an ashpit (K5) from the Liangzhu period was found, and it was broken by tombs of the late Liangzhu period. Further, in the excavation of 2015, the remains of houses and several column holes were found in a residential area. These houses were surrounded by ashpits and wells, which were very dense, while the relic units on the southern side were relatively sparse (Figure 2).
Specifically, 14 soil samples were taken for flotation from the excavation regions in 2014 and 2015 (Figure 3), totaling 135 L (Table 1). In this study, we followed standard flotation methods. All samples were extracted from ash pits, layers, and water wells. Four of the samples were obtained from four parts of one huge ash pit. Sampling was not carried out according to uniform stratigraphic layers but was instead based on the identification of cultural layers during excavation. All samples were collected from strata associated with the Liangzhu period.
Further, 0.2-mm aperture sieves were used to collect plant remains for the light fraction, while 1.25-mm aperture sieves were used for heavy objects. After drying and sorting through the 0.5-, 1-, 2-, and 4-mm mesh sieves, all charred remains were selected using a 40× stereo microscope [34]. Carbonized plant seeds, spikelets, and fruits were also identified, measured, and photographed.
Charcoals that were larger than 1 mm were collected and weighed. Next, after re-sieving with the 2-mm aperture sieves, any charcoal left on the sieve was identified. It was split to a flat, fresh plane and then cut in a different direction using a double-edged blade. After cutting the charcoal, we examined its cross-section, radial section, and tangential section. The charcoals were observed and recorded using a metallurgic microscope at 5×, 10×, 20×, and 50× magnifications [35]. Further, the plant seeds and charcoals were analyzed at the Archaeobotany Laboratory, Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. For an accurate chronological assignment of the identified plant remains and charcoals, three dating samples were selected and submitted to Peking University AMS Laboratory for direct AMS 14C dating. All of the samples were obtained from well-defined archaeological contexts associated with the Liangzhu period and are highly representative of the site’s occupation and use.

3. Results

3.1. Radiocarbon Dating Results

The AMS radiocarbon dating results, including 14C and calibrated calendar ages (cal. BC), are shown in Table 2. The AMS dates from the huge pits and the water wells fell between 3078 BC and 2600 BC, while the sample from the ancient river around the site showed data from slightly later. Combined with the characteristics of the pottery found during excavation, we can assume that the site was from the middle Liangzhu period.

3.2. Caryopses Analysis

We identified 361 plant seeds, 7536 spikelets, and 17 fruit fractions from 14 samples at the Zhumucun site, covering 14 families (Table 3). The remains of three crops were identified, including 237 rice grains (Oryza sativa L.), 7536 rice spikelets, 1 millet (Setaria italica L.), and 34 soybeans (Glycine max.). Other edible plant remains included water chestnut (Trapaceae), gorgon fruit (Euryale ferox), melon (Cucumis melo L.), and rubus sf(Rubus L.). Further, other identified plant remains included charred seeds of the grass family (Poaceae); cleavers (Galium spurium); cyperaceae (Cyperaceae); purple perilla (Perilla frutescens); goosefoots (Chenopodiaceae); knotweed (Polygonum); and horticultural plants such as bamboo (Bambusoideae), China tree (Melia azedarach L.), and lotus (Nymphaea tetragona) [38,39] (Figure 3).
According to the quantities discovered, rice undoubtedly occupied this region’s main food resource. All the carbonized, intact rice remains were measured for length, width, and thickness. The rice grains’ average length was 4.91 mm, the average width was 2.18 mm, and the average thickness was 1.83 mm. Compared with the rice found at earlier sites in the lower Yangtze River region, the Zhumucun site shows only some growth in length and width, with there being no clear difference in thickness [23,27,29]. Considering their ubiquity, rice still dominates agriculture, accounting for 64.29% of grains and 50% of spikelets. Further, the dispersion of the rice that remains at this site also shows that this crop was not scarce in the local village. The large number of spikelets also indicates that rice was locally processed [1,3,40,41].
After gathering other edible plants, we found that they had less than 10% ubiquity, which means that they may have only been a supplement to people’s overall diet. The remains of water chestnut and gorgon fruit were fragments, meaning that the actual quantity of edible plants may have been even smaller.
Finally, only a small number of weeds were found at the site, with most being found in the samples from the huge pit, indicating a typical wetland environment in that period. Additionally, the limited quantity of weeds indicates that the inhabitants may have managed the landscape.

3.3. Wood Charcoal Results

Charcoal fractions over 1 mm weighed 168.307 g, with most of them coming from two samples, including 48.389 g from a water well (J159) and 95.052 g from a large ash pit (K5). Further, eight charcoal samples from four sampling points were also identified. The charcoal identities can be divided into two categories: woody plants and herbaceous plants. The woody plants include camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora), peach (Amygdalus persica), plum (Prunus salicina), and evergreen chinquapin (Castanopsis fargesii). The herbaceous plant category primarily includes bamboo (Bambusoideae), Leguminosae, Poaceae, and Euphorbiaceae. Interestingly, the herbaceous plants were mainly found in the pit (K5), while the woody plants were distributed throughout the residential area (Figure 4).

4. Discussion

4.1. Subsistence Strategies and Food Consumption Patterns at the Zhumucun Site

According to current research, the transformation from hunting-gathering to agriculture in the lower Yangtze River region took a long time [42,43,44]. The critical stage herein may have been around the mid-Holocene period, when a breakthrough occurred in the rice domestication progress [3,40]. At the Zhumucun site, which was a small settlement during the Liangzhu period, rice held a particular agricultural advantage, with rice farming being the most likely primary food source. As noted earlier, the variation in rice size is no longer considered a sufficient indicator of the level of rice cultivation. At this stage, the size of rice was no longer regarded as the primary criterion for determining its degree of domestication [41,45,46]. However, the large quantity of domesticated spikelet bases found at the Zhumucun site provides significant evidence for the advancement of agricultural practices in this phase. At the site, the presence of fuller and more uniform rice grains may reflect concentrated harvesting practices or advancements in field management techniques.
Additionally, only one fragile millet was found at the site, and, due to its rarity, it could not be dated. Millets were occasionally found in the lower Yangtze River region during the Neolithic period. However, because of poor preservation conditions, there are no dating data available to support the southern spread of millet farming to this area at this time. In recent years, a large number of millet remains have been discovered at the Nanshan and Huangguashan sites in southern China [47,48]. The discovery of millet during the Liangzhu period may support the hypothesis that millet agriculture propagated from northern China, as this provides evidence for a potential route for this process.
Besides the millet remains, some soybean remains were also discovered at the Zhumucun site, with these being particularly concentrated in a well (J159). However, it is difficult to determine whether the soybeans found at this site were locally cultivated or spread from a northern area. This is because soybeans were found in abundance in the Yellow River Basin during the middle Holocene [49,50,51]; with the frequent exchange of cultural objects and people in this period, soybeans could have been transported here.
The other edible plants found at the site included water chestnut, gorgon fruit, plum, and melon; however, these only occupied a small proportion of the overall quantity. Water chestnut and gorgon fruit used to be primary starch sources in the early and middle Holocene periods in the lower Yangtze River region [32,52,53]. During the Liangzhu period, because of the maturation of rice agriculture, they became a supplement to the human diet [18,28]. However, the gathering of these edible plants still occurred in this period, but only as a means to broaden human food sources. Finally, no peach or plum kernels were found at the site, with the charcoal identification also indicating that Rosaceae fruit may have played a supplementary role in people’s diet in this region.
Paleodiet reconstruction at the Zhumucun site shows a typical plant resource utilization strategy during the Liangzhu period [18,54]. Rice dominated the crops, with other edible plants only being used to broaden people’s overall diet. The subsistence economy at the site appears to have been primarily based on agricultural production, which was the primary plant food resource. The limited number of animal bones recovered from the site makes it difficult to determine whether animal husbandry played a significant role in the subsistence strategies at the site. Nevertheless, the presence of rice paddies indicates that the inhabitants likely led a self-sufficient lifestyle, relying on rice cultivation. The discovery of numerous spikelet bases suggests that harvesting and processing activities were concentrated at the site. However, it remains unclear whether the rice was consumed locally or exchanged with other sites, warranting further investigation.

4.2. Agricultural Practices at Zhumucun Site

The site comprises distinct zones, including residential, agricultural, and burial areas. Most of our flotation samples were collected from ash pits in the residential area. The plant remains assemblage showed that rice was very common at the site, and the density was significantly higher here than in the surrounding area. In the ashpit at the center of the residential area, only carbonized rice grains were found, indicating less processing of byproducts. However, in the ashpits near the house, we found a large number of spikelets. It can thus be assumed that some of the rice may have been brought back to residential areas and was then consumed immediately.
Compared to rice grains, spikelet bases were more concentrated, appearing in large quantities in four flotation samples. Notably, 5312 spikelet bases were identified in ash pit K5. We speculate that the accumulation of these remains is associated with rice processing activities. To investigate their formation and use, we divided K5 into four distinct areas for sampling (Figure 5). The quantity of rice found across the four regions was relatively low, but, interestingly, the relationship between the weight of the coal and the quantity of spikelets showed a negative correlation. This may be related to the dumping locations. Most of the rice processing byproducts were dumped at the location of Sample 2. According to our charcoal identification results, the charcoal in Sample 3 was mostly from herbaceous plants, such as Gramineae, Euphorbiaceae, and Leguminosae. Meanwhile, the plant taxa of Sample 3 were dominated by weeds, which possibly came from grasses removed from fields or roadside weeds. An analysis of the plant remains in the ash pit suggested that agricultural practices at the site were likely extensive, with weeds entering the site alongside the harvested crops. Processing byproducts were probably disposed of in K5, with waste originating from the direction of Sample 2. It is possible that the waste was sorted before being incinerated. Additionally, the spatial layout of the site indicates that K5 was located near paddy areas. This suggests that crops may have been processed near the paddies after harvest and subsequently transported back to the residential area for consumption.
As a rice processing byproduct, the locations of spikelet remains may indicate where the threshing process occurred [2,55,56]. At the Zhumucun site, rice spikelet bases were also concentrated in ash pits near residential areas, though their quantity was significantly lower than that in K5. This suggests that rice would have been threshed near the rice paddies following a harvest, while the rest would have been taken to the residential area for processing and immediate consumption. All food residues were found to be concentrated in the ash pit and well. This agricultural activity may hint at the social organization and activities of the people in this area. During the Liangzhu period, households were the smallest unit of agricultural production. The high concentration of spikelet remains may thus be the result of several families, which would mean that crop processing may have been an organized behavior. It can be inferred that the Zhumucun site, as a small-scale settlement with a relatively limited population, functioned under a unified system of labor management. However, crop consumption likely occurred within households.

4.3. Regional Division and Landscape Reconstruction of Zhumucun Site

In this study, we analyzed the regional function and landscape reconstruction of the Zhumucun site through plant remains, charcoal, and relic units. Based on our research of two excavation areas, we can assume that, as a small settlement in the Liangzhu period, it may have been divided into small regions, with each region having the necessary supporting facilities, including residential areas, processing areas, tomb areas, and farming areas. It is not clear whether this division came from each family. Further, each region contained an active production organization. Rice was cultivated at the edge of the region, not far from the house, while crop processing may have happened near the paddies. After consuming edible plants, the people in this period may have discarded the residues into pits near their houses.
A charcoal analysis at the Zhumucun site indicated that the majority of the wood came from fruit and evergreen broad-leaved forests, both characteristic of the lower Yangtze River region. This observation is corroborated by the identification of the carbonized seeds remaining at the site. The presence of camphor trees, peaches, and plums suggests that fruits were commonly used. Additionally, the discovery of grass (Gramineae) and legume (Leguminosae) remains indicates that agricultural practices, such as crop cultivation or processing, were likely integral to livelihoods at the site.
The spatial distribution of charcoal remains, in conjunction with associated archaeological features, indicates that woody charcoal was primarily concentrated at the boundaries between the residential areas, burial zones, and paddies (Figure 6). Although vine and woody plants were found to be limited, most of the discoveries were still found close to burial areas. As the boundary between the residential and burial areas, it not only plays a role of isolation but may also contain some artificially active factors. Inside the village, bamboo, Rosaceae, and water lilies may have served as ornamental plants. This pattern may reflect intentional landscape organization and functional zoning within the site. Furthermore, the concentration of Gramineae charcoal in ash pits located near paddy fields infers that these remains were likely byproducts of agricultural activities.
An analysis of the plant and archaeological remains suggested that the Zhumucun site featured distinct functional areas, potentially delineated by specific plants.

4.4. Variations in Subsistence Strategies at Liangzhu Cultural Sites

Numerous research sites are dedicated to the study of Liangzhu culture settlements, providing comprehensive discussions on the regional and hierarchical differences among the settlements [14,57]. Yuan [18] has conducted extensive research on subsistence imbalances within the Liangzhu culture, focusing particularly on animal and plant remains. They argue that, while the Liangzhu culture is widely acknowledged for its advanced rice farming system, gathering, hunting, and the use of wild resources remained important at smaller settlement sites.
Published data show that wild plant resources, particularly those from the Trapezium, Fagaceae, and Rosaceae families, were heavily relied upon at various sites, with smaller settlements relying more on these resources [58,59,60]. However, the Zhumucun site offers a notable exception (Figure 7). Some of its smaller settlements display significant productivity, suggesting a more complex subsistence strategy. This variation highlights the possibility of differentiated strategies, potentially reflecting specific local conditions or cultural practices that set Zhumucun apart from other contemporary sites.
The small size of the Zhumucun site, along with the limited number of houses and tombs, suggests that it supported a relatively small population. Despite this, the settlement exhibited a highly developed agricultural system. Archaeological evidence indicates that rice was cultivated, harvested, and consumed locally. Furthermore, there are indications that the Zhumucun site may have produced surplus grain, potentially supporting higher-level settlements in the surrounding area.
The variations between sites may be attributed to regionalization. In comparison to the core area, the sites responsible for supplying food to the central settlement exhibit more advanced agricultural systems. These smaller, highly productive settlements played a crucial role in the social structure of Liangzhu society. By providing essential resources, they supported the emergence of an elite class, the expansion of larger urban centers, and the organization of centralized labor, all of which were key to the foration of complex social hierarchies.

5. Conclusions

The Liangzhu culture is characterized by distinct settlement stratification, with the Zhumucun site serving as a typical example of a rural settlement. This site is particularly significant for its agricultural production, which provides valuable insights into the subsistence strategies of the Liangzhu people. Rice was the primary crop in the local diet, supplemented by some wild plant resources. However, food diversity at Zhumucun was more limited than at higher-level settlements. The crops were cultivated and consumed locally, and they may have also played a role in supporting surrounding areas. A functional analysis suggests that crop processing at the Zhumucun site likely occurred near paddy fields, with a small portion being taken back to households for further processing. However, crop consumption was primarily managed at the household level, indicating that even the smaller settlements of Liangzhu maintained a well-organized labor structure. Additionally, landscape plants, including trees and vines, are similar to those commonly seen in villages in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, and they were separate from the different functional regions within the site.
Considering the broader subsistence pattern of the Lower Yangtze River during the Liangzhu period, the productivity of smaller sites such as Zhumucun deserves greater attention. These sites likely met local self-sufficiency needs and produced surplus food, which may have supported higher-level settlements, playing a key role in the development of Liangzhu civilization. Future research should integrate multidisciplinary approaches to systematically compare crop assemblages, dietary patterns, and surplus grain circulation between Zhumucun and other higher-level settlements. This approach will clarify how smaller settlements were integrated into the political–economic networks of regional civilizations through grain production. Concurrently, deeper investigations into landscape plants could reveal how the Liangzhu people shaped the micro-environments of their settlements through human intervention. Long-term research should also assess the ecological impacts of these practices on the sustainability of rice-based societies in the lower Yangtze River.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, X.Z. and F.Y.; methodology, X.Z.; validation, X.Z., M.S. and F.Y.; formal analysis, X.Z.; resources, M.S.; data curation, X.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, X.Z. and F.Y.; writing—review and editing, X.Z. and F.Y.; visualization, X.Z. and Q.C.; supervision, X.Z. and F.Y.; funding acquisition, X.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research is co-supported by the National Social Science Fund of China (Grant No. 19CKG027) and the Archaeological Talent Promotion Program of China (Grant No. 2024-264).

Data Availability Statement

Data are available on request.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the excavators of the Suzhou Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology for providing the information on the site, and the assistance of Shuzhi Wang with the identification of charcoal.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Location of Zhumucun and Mojiaoshan sites. Sample locations from the excavations of 2014 and 2015. The red pot indicates the location of flotation samples, and the blue pot indicates the location of charcoal sample collection.
Figure 1. Location of Zhumucun and Mojiaoshan sites. Sample locations from the excavations of 2014 and 2015. The red pot indicates the location of flotation samples, and the blue pot indicates the location of charcoal sample collection.
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Figure 2. 1. Houses from the Liangzhu period in the ruins; 2. Ash pits (K5) found in the western section of the site; 3. Stone shovel; 4. Pottery; 5. Tombs found in the burial area [33].
Figure 2. 1. Houses from the Liangzhu period in the ruins; 2. Ash pits (K5) found in the western section of the site; 3. Stone shovel; 4. Pottery; 5. Tombs found in the burial area [33].
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Figure 3. Micrograph of plant remains. 1. Rice with glumes; 2. Rice grains; 3. Rice spikelets; 4. Soybeans; 5. Millet; 6. Water chestnut; 7. Gorgon fruit; 8. Melon; 9. China tree; 10. Polygonum; 11. Cyperaceae ach.
Figure 3. Micrograph of plant remains. 1. Rice with glumes; 2. Rice grains; 3. Rice spikelets; 4. Soybeans; 5. Millet; 6. Water chestnut; 7. Gorgon fruit; 8. Melon; 9. China tree; 10. Polygonum; 11. Cyperaceae ach.
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Figure 4. Microscopic images of charcoal samples 1. Cross-section of camphor tree charcoal; 2. Tangential section of camphor tree charcoal; 3. Radial section of evergreen chinquapin charcoal; 4. Cross-section of plum; 5. Radial section of plum; 6. Cross-section of plum; 7. Radial section of peach charcoal; 8. Tangential section of peach charcoal; 9. Cross-section of peach charcoal; 10. Cross-section of bamboo charcoal; 11. Cross-section of Poaceae charcoal; 12. Radial section of Leguminosae charcoal.
Figure 4. Microscopic images of charcoal samples 1. Cross-section of camphor tree charcoal; 2. Tangential section of camphor tree charcoal; 3. Radial section of evergreen chinquapin charcoal; 4. Cross-section of plum; 5. Radial section of plum; 6. Cross-section of plum; 7. Radial section of peach charcoal; 8. Tangential section of peach charcoal; 9. Cross-section of peach charcoal; 10. Cross-section of bamboo charcoal; 11. Cross-section of Poaceae charcoal; 12. Radial section of Leguminosae charcoal.
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Figure 5. Relationship of spikelet density, charcoal density, and weed density in the pit (K5).
Figure 5. Relationship of spikelet density, charcoal density, and weed density in the pit (K5).
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Figure 6. Regional function and landscape reconstruction of the northeast side of the Zhumucun site.
Figure 6. Regional function and landscape reconstruction of the northeast side of the Zhumucun site.
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Figure 7. The utility of plant resources at Liangzhu cultural sites.
Figure 7. The utility of plant resources at Liangzhu cultural sites.
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Table 1. Source of flotation samples.
Table 1. Source of flotation samples.
Maple NumberSampling PointSample Volume (L)Charcoal Weight (g)
1K5 (1)106.348
2K5 (2)105.089
3K5 (3)1154.178
4K5 (4)1029.437
5H234122.448
6H232121.126
7H2301421.22
8H227100.336
9H222200.736
10H224150
11H225140.126
12H1591648.389
13H221120
14J156100
Total 135168.307
Table 2. AMS radiocarbon dating results with calibration. The calibration curves were calculated using Oxcal v4.2.4 Bronk Ramsey (2013) [36]; r:5, and atmospheric data from Reimer et al. (2013) [37].
Table 2. AMS radiocarbon dating results with calibration. The calibration curves were calculated using Oxcal v4.2.4 Bronk Ramsey (2013) [36]; r:5, and atmospheric data from Reimer et al. (2013) [37].
Lab CodeContext NumberSample Type 14C Age (Year BP)Calibrated Date (95.4% prob.)
BA1725432014KGZ J124charcoal 4155 ± 452882BC (94.6%) 2619BC
2606BC (0.8%) 2600BC
BA1725442014KGZK5charcoal 4330 ± 353078BC (0.6%) 3074BC
3024BC (94.8%) 2890BC
BA1725452014KGZHD8charcoal 3940 ± 352567BC (11.6%) 2523BC
2498BC (81.2%) 2335BC
2324BC (2.7%) 2306BC
BA1801162014KGZJ169bone 4350 ± 253023BC (95.4%) 2904BC
Table 3. Quantity, density and, ubiquity of plant remains at the Zhumucun site.
Table 3. Quantity, density and, ubiquity of plant remains at the Zhumucun site.
Plant RemainsQuantityDensity (per Liter)Ubiquity (%)
Oryza sativa L.grains2371.7664.29
spikelets753655.8250
Setaria italica L.10.077.14
Glycine max.340.257.14
Trapaceae120.0914.29
Cucumis melo L.30.0227.14
Euryale ferox20.0157.14
Bambusoideae30.0227.14
Melia azedarach L.40.02914.29
Nymphaea tetragona10.077.14
Rubus L.20.0157.14
Cyperaceae400.29628.57
Perilla frutescens L.70.051914.29
Leonurus japonicus Houtt.30.0227.14
Poaceae50.03714.29
Chenopodiaceae20.0157.14
Galium aparine L.20.01514.29
Polygonum L30.02214.29
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Zheng, X.; Yang, F.; Sun, M.; Chen, Q. Food Production and Landscape Reconstruction of Liangzhu Culture Village (5000–4600 B.P.)—Archaeobotanical Evidence from the Site of Zhumucun, Southern China. Quaternary 2025, 8, 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat8020021

AMA Style

Zheng X, Yang F, Sun M, Chen Q. Food Production and Landscape Reconstruction of Liangzhu Culture Village (5000–4600 B.P.)—Archaeobotanical Evidence from the Site of Zhumucun, Southern China. Quaternary. 2025; 8(2):21. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat8020021

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zheng, Xiaoqu, Fan Yang, Mingli Sun, and Qinyu Chen. 2025. "Food Production and Landscape Reconstruction of Liangzhu Culture Village (5000–4600 B.P.)—Archaeobotanical Evidence from the Site of Zhumucun, Southern China" Quaternary 8, no. 2: 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat8020021

APA Style

Zheng, X., Yang, F., Sun, M., & Chen, Q. (2025). Food Production and Landscape Reconstruction of Liangzhu Culture Village (5000–4600 B.P.)—Archaeobotanical Evidence from the Site of Zhumucun, Southern China. Quaternary, 8(2), 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/quat8020021

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